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Kinesthetic learning

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shimer College students learning to cook by cooking, 1942

Kinesthetic learning (American English), kinaesthetic learning (British English), or tactile learning is learning that involves physical activity. Kinesthetic learners are often characterized as students who prefer whole-body movement to process new and difficult information.[1] However, systematic reviews of the scientific literature have found no adequate evidence to support the claim that adapting instruction to kinesthetic preferences improves learning outcomes for students who identify kinesthetic learning as their preferred learning style.[2]

History

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Kinesthetic intelligence, originally coupled with tactile abilities, was defined and discussed in Howard Gardner's Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983).[3] In this work, Gardner describes activities such as dancing and performing surgeries as requiring great kinesthetic intelligence: using the body to create or accomplish something.

Margaret H'Doubler wrote and spoke about kinesthetic learning during the 1940s, defining kinesthetic learning as the human body's ability to express itself through movement and dance.[4] H'Doubler, a dance educator at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and founder of the first dance major in the United States (1926),[5] advocated for a kinesthetic approach to movement education throughout her career, emphasizing feedback from muscles, joints, and tendons as a basis for learning.

Viktor Lowenfeld used the term in his 1947 textbook for art educators, Creative and Mental Growth,[6] which became one of the most influential art education textbooks of the twentieth century.

Scientific validity

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The notion that matching instruction to a student's preferred learning style—the "meshing hypothesis"—has been widely challenged by cognitive scientists. A 2008 systematic review published in Psychological Science in the Public Interest by Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer, and Bjork examined the research base for learning-style theories and concluded that there was no adequate evidence to justify incorporating learning-style assessments into general educational practice, and that several studies using appropriate methodology produced results that contradicted the hypothesis.[2] The authors stressed that, while people clearly have preferences for how information is presented, such preferences do not reliably predict which instructional method will most improve their learning.

Despite this, surveys consistently find that large majorities of teachers—often between 80 and 95 percent—endorse learning-style beliefs, and the concept remains widespread in teacher preparation materials.[7] Cognitive scientists have classified learning styles as a neuromyth—a popular misconception about the brain that persists despite contradicting empirical evidence.[2]

Researchers note that many people have strong intuitions about how they learn, and that these intuitions feel personally compelling, but controlled experiments comparing groups taught in matched versus mismatched styles have generally failed to find the crossover interactions that would constitute evidence for the meshing hypothesis.[2]

The VARK model

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Neil Fleming, a New Zealand teacher and educational theorist, developed the VARK model (visual, aural or auditory, read/write and kinesthetic) beginning in 1987 and formally introduced it in a 1992 article co-authored with Colleen Mills at Lincoln University.[8][9] Fleming drew on earlier frameworks, including the VAK model, and expanded them by splitting visual preference into two distinct modes—symbolic-visual and read/write—yielding four categories.[8]

According to Fleming's model, kinesthetic learners are similar to tactile learners in that they prefer hands-on experiential learning, excelling in concrete contexts such as on-the-job training, work experience, internships, and simulations.[8]

The Fleming VAK/VARK model (one of the most widely used categorizations of learning styles)[10] categorizes learning styles as follows:

Skill memory also fits into the category of kinesthetic learning. Skill memories are difficult to convey except by direct demonstration, may be acquired without awareness, and require several repetitions.[11]

Classification

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Rita Dunn contends that kinesthetic and tactile learning are the same style.[12] Galeet BenZion asserts that kinesthetic and tactile learning are separate styles with distinct characteristics, defining kinesthetic learning as the process that produces new knowledge or understanding through the learner's body movement—movement performed specifically to establish or extend knowledge. BenZion found that kinesthetic learning is most effective when the learner uses their own words to describe how their body movement reflects the concept being explored. One example is a student using movement to work through the sum 1/2 plus 3/4, then explaining how their motions in space reflect the underlying mathematical process.[13]

Denig (2004) presented Dunn and Dunn's Learning Styles Model, which addresses 21 elements affecting students' learning, grouped into five stimuli: environmental, emotional, sociological, physiological, and psychological. Under this model, physiological stimuli include a perceptual element encompassing auditory, visual, tactual, and kinesthetic modalities. Kinesthetic learners are understood to learn best through whole-body activities and experiences, while tactual learners engage best through hands-on manipulation.[14]

Tactile learning utilizes students' sense of touch to explore and understand their surroundings, emphasizing sensory experience for cognitive growth through direct interaction and manipulation.[15]

Kinesthetic memory

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Depending upon memory systems, kinesthetic learners respond differently. Categories often discussed include whole-body learners, hands-on learners, doodlers, and students who learn through emotional experiences. Learning and memory in kinesthetic contexts is generally short-term without deliberate reinforcement. Various techniques may support long-term retention: mind mapping, story mapping, webbing, and drawing for doodlers; role play, clay modeling, building, and math manipulatives for hands-on learners; and role-playing, body mapping, puzzles, and movement-enabled computer activities for whole-body learners. Group activities involving bodily movement—such as dance, drama, and sports—can also nurture kinesthetic learning.[16]

Strategies that may facilitate kinesthetic memory through procedural motor pathways include:

Kinesthetic learners whose memories are associated with emotions may particularly benefit from dance, debate, drama, role-play, and charades. Learning linked to strong emotions such as excitement, curiosity, anger, disappointment, or success tends toward long-term memory retention.[16]

Types of skill memory

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Perceptual-motor skills are skills learned through movement patterns guided by sensory inputs.[11] These are divided into closed skills and open skills. Closed skills are performed in a stable, predictable environment—a ballet dancer masters a fixed sequence and executes it consistently—making them a prototypical "closed" skill with a single correct form. Open skills require flexibility and adaptability, as in team sports: because no two football games unfold identically, a player must apply a variety of learned drills and strategies across constantly changing situations.[11]

Cognitive skills are also part of kinesthetic learning, perceptual learning, and skill memories. Some learners engage more effectively in hands-on environments, which simultaneously develops their cognitive skills—the ability to solve problems or apply strategies, rather than simply respond to physical stimuli.[11] Puzzle-solving is a representative example of a cognitive skill.

Management strategies

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Learners with kinesthetic preferences are described as learning best through active movement and experiences. Activities such as playing, puppetry, drama, acting, and designing encourage active involvement.[17]

Strategies proposed to motivate students with a kinesthetic preference include:[18]

  • Providing attention and reward as motivators; avoiding punishment.
  • Offering students a choice of activities for learning a concept.
  • Allocating grades based on participation using score rubrics.
  • Choosing activities that allow all students to experience success.
  • Ensuring equal participation opportunities.
  • Organizing cooperative activities with positive feedback to encourage teamwork.

Strategies for managing highly active learners include:[18]

  • Encouraging students to organize body movement during activities.
  • Regular monitoring of students.
  • Giving clear, accurate directions before beginning an activity.
  • Explaining in advance the consequences of going off-task.[18]

Kinesthetic learners in the classroom

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Through a strength-based and learner-centered approach, educators who subscribe to the kinesthetic model engage students in activities that require movement, on the premise that students learn by doing. Activities commonly cited include role-plays, drama, dance, races and competitions, field trips, and projects.[1]

Favre (2009) argued that instructional strategies for kinesthetic learners should incorporate movement in a game-like format—for example, game boards affixed to the classroom floor or playground, and adapted commercial games aligned with lesson objectives.[19]

Reese and Dunn (2007) recommended that, to support kinesthetic learners in higher education, classes should provide active experiences such as field visits, projects, role-playing, simulations, and floor or wall games.[1]

Lister (2005) found that sixth-grade learning-support students who received kinesthetic and tactile instruction showed significant improvement in social studies achievement compared with those taught through traditional methods.[20]

Richards (2019) found kinesthetic learning activities to be an effective pedagogical strategy in physics instruction, helping students visualize abstract mechanics concepts and develop productive physical intuitions about them.[21]

Behavioral indicators

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Various educators have proposed behavioral signs that may suggest a kinesthetic learning preference. These include a tendency to fidget or make repetitive physical gestures while thinking, preference for handwritten notes over typing, a habit of pacing while memorizing material, and a natural use of hand gestures to complement speech. Other suggested indicators include thinking most clearly while exercising and preferring to physically handle objects while browsing or exploring an environment.[22] These indicators are self-reported and have not been validated as reliable diagnostic instruments by peer-reviewed research; their primary value lies in prompting self-reflection rather than classification.[2][23]

Brain substrates involved

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Three brain regions are considered central to kinesthetic and skill learning: the basal ganglia, cerebral cortex, and the cerebellum, which work together to enable the acquisition and mastery of new physical skills.[24]

The basal ganglia are a collection of nuclei at the base of the forebrain.[11] They receive input from the hippocampus and cortical areas that convey sensory information about the external world, then relay interpreted signals to the thalamus and brain stem—both key to physical movement. The basal ganglia thus initiate the neural cascade through which a person learning by doing responds to sensory stimuli. Practice after acquiring a skill is important: it reshapes how basal ganglia circuits participate in executing that skill, through the mechanism of synaptic plasticity.[11] Greater practice corresponds to greater neural plasticity.

The cerebral cortex covers the top and sides of the brain and is involved in storing and processing sensory and motor information.[11] In humans it is a folded sheet of neural tissue roughly 3–4 mm thick. Its neural circuits expand with practice, mirroring synaptic plasticity. Non-invasive imaging technologies such as positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have allowed researchers to observe learning processes in the living human brain.[25] Studies using fMRI indicate that the early phase of acquiring a new skill is rapid and later slows toward a plateau; this slower phase corresponds to long-term consolidation of skill memory in the cortex. Spaced practice over a longer period produces more durable retention than intensive short-term study—consistent with broader findings on the spacing effect.

The cerebellum, wrapped around the brain stem and densely packed with neurons and neural connections, is critical to movement regulation in humans and other animals.[24] It contributes to timing, predicts events, and participates in the formation, execution, and timing of conditioned responses.[11] It plays an important role in all forms of kinesthetic learning and motor function—enabling a ballet dancer to execute a routine with precise timing, or an athlete to coordinate and aim a throw.

All three systems function together, each contributing to responding to sensory events, timing, and physical control. Studies have shown that animals raised in complex environments develop greater capillary density per nerve cell—and therefore a richer blood supply to the brain—than those raised in impoverished environments, suggesting that experience shapes overall brain capacity.[25]

See also

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References

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  1. 1 2 3 Reese, Valerie L.; Dunn, Rita (2007). "Learning-Style Preferences of a Diverse Freshmen Population in a Large, Private, Metropolitan University by Gender and GPA". Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice. 9: 95–112. doi:10.2190/N836-888L-2311-2374. S2CID 144555524.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 Pashler, Harold; McDaniel, Mark; Rohrer, Doug; Bjork, Robert (2008). "Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence". Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 9 (3): 105–119. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6053.2009.01038.x. PMID 26162104. S2CID 8206631.
  3. ↑ Gardner, Howard (1983). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02509-1.
  4. ↑ H'Doubler, Margaret N. (1940). Dance: A Creative Art Experience. New York: F.S. Crofts & Co.
  5. ↑ "Dancing for (over) a century". School of Education, University of Wisconsin–Madison. 2026. Retrieved 23 July 2026.
  6. ↑ Lowenfeld, Viktor; Brittain, W. Lambert (1947). Creative and Mental Growth. New York: Macmillan.
  7. ↑ Dekker, Sanne; Lee, Nikki C.; Howard-Jones, Paul; Jolles, Jelle (2012). "Neuromyths in Education: Prevalence and Predictors of Misconceptions among Teachers". Frontiers in Psychology. 3: 429. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00429. PMC 3475349. PMID 23133409.
  8. 1 2 3 Kte'pi, B. M. (2016). "VARK model". Salem Press Encyclopedia.
  9. ↑ Fleming, Neil D.; Mills, Colleen (1992). "Not Another Inventory, Rather a Catalyst for Reflection". To Improve the Academy. 11: 137–155. doi:10.1002/j.2334-4822.1992.tb00213.x.
  10. ↑ Leite, Walter L.; Svinicki, Marilla; Shi, Yuying (2010). "Attempted Validation of the Scores of the VARK: Learning Styles Inventory with Multitrait–Multimethod Confirmatory Factor Analysis Models". Educational and Psychological Measurement. 70 (2): 323–339. doi:10.1177/0013164409344507. S2CID 144889213.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Gluck, M. (2014). Learning and Memory: From Brain to Behavior. New York: Worth Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7167-8654-2.
  12. ↑ Dunn, Rita; Honigsfeld, Andrea; Doolan, Laura Shea; Bostrom, Lena; Russo, Karen; Schiering, Marjorie S.; Suh, Bernadyn; Tenedero, Henry (2009). "Impact of Learning-Style Instructional Strategies on Students' Achievement and Attitudes: Perceptions of Educators in Diverse Institutions". The Clearing House. 82 (3): 135–140. doi:10.3200/TCHS.82.3.135-140. JSTOR 30181095. S2CID 36558213.
  13. ↑ Westreich, Galeet Benzion (1999). An Analysis of Kinesthetic Learners' Responses: Teaching Mathematics Through Dance (Ph.D.). Washington, D.C.: American University. hdl:1961/thesesdissertations:2355. OCLC 53310646.
  14. ↑ Denig, Stephen J. (2004). "Multiple Intelligences and Learning Styles: Two Complementary Dimensions". Teachers College Record. 106: 96–111. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9620.2004.00322.x.
  15. ↑ "Kinaesthetic learning or Tactile learning". Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  16. 1 2 Marilee Sprenger (2008). Differentiation Through Learning Styles and Memory. Sage Publications. pp. 113–. ISBN 978-1-4522-9504-6.
  17. ↑ Ronald R. Sims; Serbrenia J. Sims (1995). The Importance of Learning Styles: Understanding the Implications for Learning, Course Design, and Education. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 53–. ISBN 978-0-313-29278-1.
  18. 1 2 3 Traci Lengel; Mike Kuczala (2010). The Kinesthetic Classroom: Teaching and Learning Through Movement. Sage Publications. ISBN 978-1-4522-7120-0.
  19. ↑ Favre, Lois R. (2009). "Kinesthetic Instructional Strategies: Moving At-Risk Learners to Higher Levels". Insights on Learning Disabilities. 6 (1): 29–35.
  20. ↑ Lister, Dena O. (June 2005). "Effects of Traditional Versus Tactual and Kinesthetic Learning-Style Responsive Instructional Strategies on Bermudian Learning-Support Sixth-Grade Students' Social Studies Achievement and Attitude-Test Scores". Research for Educational Reform. 10 (2): 24–40.
  21. ↑ Richards, AJ (2019). "Teaching Mechanics Using Kinesthetic Learning Activities". The Physics Teacher. 57 (1): 35–38. Bibcode:2019PhTea..57...35R. doi:10.1119/1.5084926. S2CID 125222905.
  22. ↑ Anderson, Skylar (August 28, 2014). "10 Signs You Might Be A Kinesthetic Learner". StudyRight.
  23. ↑ Coffield, Frank; Moseley, David; Hall, Elaine; Ecclestone, Kathryn (2004). Learning Styles and Pedagogy in Post-16 Learning: A Systematic and Critical Review (PDF). London: Learning and Skills Research Centre. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2012.
  24. 1 2 Presti, David E. (2016). Foundational Concepts in Neuroscience: A Brain-mind Odyssey. New York: W.W. Norton & Company Ltd. ISBN 978-0-393-70960-5.
  25. 1 2 Bransford, John; Brown, Ann L.; Cocking, Rodney R. (1999). How People Learn. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. doi:10.17226/6160. ISBN 978-0-309-06557-3. S2CID 235510978.
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