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Western Iranian languages

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Western Iranian
Western Iranic
Geographic
distribution		Southwest Asia, Central Asia, Caucasus, and western South Asia
Linguistic classificationIndo-European
Subdivisions
Language codes
Glottolognort3177  Northwestern Iranian
sout3157  Southwestern Iranian
Distribution of the Iranian languages in and around the Iranian plateau.

The Western Iranian languages or Western Iranic languages are a branch of the Iranian languages, attested from the time of Old Persian (6th century BC) and Median. The languages belonging to this branch are widely spoken across a vast geographical area stretching to Anatolia in the west, the Caucasus in the north, southern Iran in the south and Tajikistan in the east.[2] The most widely spoken Western Iranian language is Persian, which is a pluricentric language.[3]

History

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From a diachronic perspective, the Iranian languages are stratified into three distinct historical stages: Old Iranian, Middle Iranian, and New Iranian. The diachronic classification of the Western Iranian languages also follows this tripartite developmental trajectory. Old Persian and Median constitute the earliest documented Western Iranian languages from the Old Iranian era. While a substantial corpus of Old Persian has been preserved, the textual evidence for Median is highly restricted, limited to a small number of lexical items attested in Old Persian inscriptions.[4] The Persian language is the only Western Iranian language attested across all three stages of Iranian languages: Old, Middle, and New Iranian and is the only Iranian language for which close philological relationships between all of its three stages are established and so that Old, Middle, and New Persian represent one and the same language of Persian.[5]

Old Iranian period

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The Old Iranian period languages consisted of the following languages:

Middle Iranian period

[edit]

The Middle Iranian period languages consisted of the following languages:

Modern period (Neo-Iranian)

[edit]

There is no consensus on the exact linguistic classification of the Iranian languages, and the traditional grouping between Northwestern and Southwestern Iranian languages seems to become more ambiguous upon closer inspection of individual dialects and languages. This indicates that these language groups are not genetic entities.[6] Primarily focused on phonology, Ludwig Paul and Gernot Windfuhr propose that the Western Iranian languages exist on "a scale of ‘Northwesternness’ or ‘Southwesternness’, on which each language is ‘more or less’ NW or SW.",[7][8] though this does not take into account linguistic convergence in grammar and other linguistic aspects.[6]

Phonology

[edit]

Phonologically, overall, from Parthian, Gurani, Tati, Zaza and Talysh downward to Balochi, Kurdish and Persian, the Western Iranian languages are successively less archaic. Phonologically, Gurani, Tati, Zaza and Talysh occupy the westernmost fringe of the Western Iranian language continuum, whereas Persian and Kurdish are positioned at the eastern extreme, with Kurdish demonstrating the closest phonetic affinity and highest degree of phonological proximity to Persian, a southwestern Iranian language. Kurdish exhibits a transitional character aligned with Persian within the Western Iranian linguistic continuum:[9][10]

Proto-IE Parthian Gurani Tati Zaza Talysh Semnani Caspian Central dia. Balochi Kurdish Persian
*ḱ/ĝ s/z s/z s/z s/z s/z s/z s/z s/z s/z s/z h/d
*k(u)pal -ž- -ž- -ž- -ĵ- -ž -ĵ,ž- -ĵ- -ĵ-,ž,z -ĵ- -ž- -z-
*gu(h)pal ž ž ž (y-) ĵ ž ĵ,ž ĵ ĵ,ž,z ĵ ž z
*kw29 ? sip isb esb asb esp s esb ? s s
*tr/*tl hr (ya)r (h)r (hi)r (h)*r (h)r r r s s s
*d(h)w b b b b b b b b d d d
*rd/*rz r/rz l, rz r/rz r/rz rz l/l(rz) l/l l/l(rz) l/l l/l l/l
*sw wx w h w h x(u) x(u) x(u),f v x(w) x(u)
*tw f u u w h h h h(u) h h h
*y- y- y- y- ĵ- ĵ- ĵ- ĵ- ĵ- (y-) ĵ- ĵ- ĵ-

The Northwestern and Southwestern phonological differences of the Western Iranian languages are also reflected in the variations extending to their numeral systems and the phonology of cardinal numbers. The phonetic realization of the numeral three constitutes a critical criterion in taxonomically classifying Western Iranian languages within these Northwestern and Southwestern branches. In certain Western Iranian languages, the number of three is cognate with the Northwestern Iranian Parthian form hrē; conversely, in other Western Iranian languages, it exhibits cognatic alignment with the Southwestern Iranian Old Persian form se > *çaiiah.[11] Among all Western Iranian languages, only in Zaza, Semnani (and its dialects such as Sorkhei, Lasgerdi, Biyabunaki) and Tati (and its dialects such as Harzandi, Kilit) the number three is cognate with Northwestern Iranian Parthian hry/hrē. Old Iranian /*θr/ further became /*hr/, in initial position acquired a supporting vowel here.[12][13] On the other hand, languages such as Persian, Kurdish, Balochi, Luri and Laki utilize sa and its derivatives for three, which originate from Old Persian se < *çaiiah. Another phonological divergence between the Northwestern and Southwestern branches manifests in the v versus b and s versus h consonant shifts. While the Northwestern Iranian languages have preserved the consonants v and s, these sounds have shifted to b and h, respectively, within the Southwestern Iranian branch, e.g. vist and das in Zaza, Semnani, Tati, Parthian vs. bist and dah in Persian and Kurdish. As a rare linguistic feature, in Zaza, Semnani and Tati the number one, denoting the indefinite article, takes both masculine and feminine forms.[14] In Avestan, which is an extinct Old Iranian language, numbers took gender specific forms.[15] The diachronic distribution of Western Iranian cardinal systems and their phonological shifts are as follows:[16][17]

one two three four five six seven eight nine ten twenty thirty forty
Avestan[15] aēva/aēvā (masc/fem) dva θrī čaθwar panca hšvaš hapta ašta nava dasa vīsati hrīsat čahwarsat
Parthian[13] ēw dō hrē čafār panǰ šwah haft hašt nah das wist hrīst čāfarast
Zaza žew/žû (masc/fem) di hīrē čahār panǰ šaš haut hašt naw das vist hīris čāwras
Tati[18] iv/iva (masc/fem) de here čö,čuār panǰ šoš hoft hašt növ da vist si čel
Semnani i/iya (masc/fem) du hera čār panǰ šaš haft hašt na das vist si čel
Sorkhei i do heré čār panǰ šaš haft hašt na das vist si čel
Lasgerdi i do heyré čār panǰ šaš haft hašt na das vist si čel
Biyabunaki i dū häirä čāhār pahānǰ šāš hāft hāšt nā dās vist si čel
Harzandi[19] i de heri ču pinǰ šaš hoft hašt nov da vist si čel
Kilit[20] ivi dèv he čoy pinǰ šaš haft hašt nav dah vist si čel
Talysh i, yak di he, se čo penǰ šaš haft hašt nav da vist si čil
Gurani[21] yak du'e y'are čuār panǰ šiš hawt hašt no da wis si čil
Gilaki yak do se čār panǰ šaš haft hašt ne da bist si čil
Mazanderani yak do se čār panǰ šaš haft hašt ne da bist si čil
Balochi[22] yak do se čār panǰ šaš hapt hašt noh dah bist si čil
Luri[23] yak do se čār panǰ šaš haft hašt noh dah bist si čel
Kurdish yak du se čār penǰ šaš haft hašt nah dah bist si čil
Persian yak do se čahār panǰ šaš haft hašt noh dah bist si čehel
Tajik[24] yak du se čor panǰ šaš haft hašt nuh dah bist si čil

Grammar

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Gender system

[edit]

While certain Northwestern Iranian languages have retained the grammatical gender inherited from the Old Iranian period, this feature has been lost in others. Grammatical gender has been extensively preserved in Zaza, Semnani, Sangsari and various Tati dialects. Additionally, numerous Central Iranian languages and dialects, such Delījāni, Jowšaqāni, Āmoraʾi, Abyānaʾi, Abūzayd­ābādi, have prominently preserved grammatical gender.[25][26] On the other hand, grammatical gender has been lost in many dialects of Gurani, except for the more archaic Avromani dialect, which has preserved this feature.[27] In Kurdish, the grammatical gender is only preserved in Northern Kurdish and only in singular nouns and not in plural, nominative and not in verbs and not in copula. Talysh, Balochi, the Caspian languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Central Kurdish and Southern Kurdish, many Gurani dialects, Persian (Old Persian had grammatical gender[28][29]), Luri and Laki have lost grammatical gender altogether.[30]

Zaza, Tati, Semnani and numerous Central Iranian languages largely maintain the grammatical gender forms of Old Iranian, excluding the neuter, uniquely among Western Iranian languages. Zaza, Semnani and various Tati and central dialects are distinguished within Western Iranian by marking grammatical gender on verbs, representing a highly idiosyncratic typological feature. These languages preserve the morphological expressions of grammatical gender across direct and oblique cases, singular and plural numbers, and the copula:

masc dir sg masc obl sg fem dir sg fem obl sg masc/fem dir/obl pl cop masc/fem
Zaza[31] -Ø + i + e + e + i / + un -o/-ā
Tati[32][33] -Ø + e + a + e + e / + on -e/-ā
Semnani[34] -Ø + i + ā + en + i / + un -a/-e
masc fem
Zaza subjmasc-Ø predmasc copula-o subjfem-e predfem copula-ā
Tati[33] subjmasc-Ø predmasc copula-e subjfem-a predfem copula-ā
Semnani[35] subjmasc-Ø predmasc copula-a subjfem-ā predfem copula-e
Semnani[a] subjmasc-Ø predmasc copula-a subjfem-Ø predfem copula-ā
Sangsari[36] subjmasc-Ø predmasc copula-a subjfem-Ø predfem copula-ö

Kinship markers

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Talysh, Tati, Zaza, Sangsari and Semnani exhibit an identical oblique case marker (-r) for kinship terms, a feature that distinguishes these languages from all other Western Iranian languages. In Zaza and some Tati dialects, the oblique case of relationship terms /-r/ also has spread from relationship terms to other terms:[30][37]

Case and personal enclitics

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A distinct aspect of the Iranian languages is the existence of a group of personal enclitics inherited from Old Iranian. These function as markers of persons in all the oblique cases, including the possessive, indirect object, direct object, and ergative agent, as well as the general oblique case. The loss, or absence, of these enclitics is therefore of great historical and typological importance, and can only be best explained by assuming a strong and enduring "substrate" typology. The languages that have lost these enclitics are Tati (Harzandi), Talyshi, Zaza, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Semnani, Sangsari and Kurmanji.[38]

[edit]

Morphologically, the derivation of present-stem bases from the Old Iranian present participle /*-ant/ constitutes a primary diagnostic feature distinguishing Zaza, Tati, Talysh, Gilaki, Semnani, Mazandarani and other Caspian languages from the Southwestern Iranian structural patterns of Persian and Kurdish. The present tense structure and conjugation of Kurdish parallel those of Persian, a Southwestern Iranian language.[39]

English Zaza Gilaki Mazanderani Semnani[b] Sangsari Tati[c] Talysh Gurani Kurdish Persian
3s "to do" ke-n-o ku-n-e kar-n-e ke-nn-e ke-nd-e ko-nd-e kerd-ed-e mi-kar-u di-k-e mi-kon-ad
3s "to go" šo-n-o šu-n-e šo-n-e šo-nn-e šu-nd-e še-nd-e še-d-e mi-l-u di-č-e mi-rav-ad

Among the Northwestern Iranian languages and dialects that utilize a modal prefix include the Central dialects (e(t)-), some Semnani dialects (ma-), Southern Tati (me-) Gorani (mi-), Laki, Kurmanji, Sorani (di-, de-, et-, ed-) and the Vafsi dialect of Talysh. Among the Southwestern Iranian languages include Persian (mi-).[40][41][42] The modal prefix marks the imperfective aspect in verbs. It is suggested that the Persian modal prefix stems from Old Iranian *hama-aiwa ("at the same time"),[43] and that the modal prefix among the Central dialects (e(t)-) stems from *aiwa-da ("always"), though it is not clear if this is the same etymon for the Kurdish languages.[42] The form *ham- alone is found in a Khorasani Persian dialect of Shahrud hall-ger-om ("I am taking"), and is also reflected in Sogdian and the Khwarezmian language.[43]

In some Western Iranian languages, the imperfect past tense is contrasted with the perfective past tense by the prefix ba-. However, in Caspian languages, though not Semnani, the imperfect past tense form is formed by subtracting ba-. In some dialects of Tati, such as Harzandi, the original present tense has become a subjunctive form, and now utilizes Turkic-type locative progressive constructions based on the infinitive instead for the general present tense. A distinct archaism from Old Iranian seems to have been preserved in Talysh, Tati and Gorani, where the imperfect past tense is formed on the present tense stem, which is also documented in the Eastern Iranian Yaghnobi language.[43]

Syntax

[edit]

Western Iranian languages possess an ezafe construction that serves to connect a noun with its modifiers, adjectives, or possessives.[44] The ezāfe is also attested in several Turkic and Indo-Aryan languages, including Azerbaijani, Ottoman Turkish, Chagatai, Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu), Punjabi, Sindhi, Bengali and Kashmiri.[45][46][47] It often approximately corresponds in usage to the English preposition of. Persian, Kurdish, Luri, Laki, Gurani and the Central Iranian languages utilize an ezafe system which attaches to the head noun to connect it with dependents such as possessors, adjectives, and noun modifiers. Zaza features a distinctive ezafe system that distinguishes it from all other Iranian languages by employing a "double ezafe" structure.[48] The Caspian languages and Balochi also use a distinct ezafe system known as "reverse ezafe" which sets it apart from the standard ezafe.[49]

Languages

[edit]

Glottolog proposes the following linguistic classification and subgrouping of the Western Iranian languages:[50][51]

Unclassified languages

[edit]

There is also a recently described, and as yet unclassified, Batu'i language that is presumably Western Iranian.[67] Extinct Deilami is sometimes classified in the Caspian branch. An Iranian Khalaj language has been claimed, but does not exist; the Khalaj speak a Turkic language.

Notes

[edit]

Many of the languages and dialects spoken in Markazi and Isfahan provinces are giving way to Persian in the younger generations.[68] It is to note that the Caspian languages (incl. Adharic), the central dialects, Zaza and Gorani languages are likely descended from a later form of Median with varying amounts of Parthian substrata,[69] whereas the Semnani languages were likely descended from Parthian.[70]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ↑ Momenabadi
  2. ↑ Aftari
  3. ↑ Harzandi

References

[edit]
  1. 1 2 Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Adharic". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  2. ↑ Skjærvø, Prods Oktor (2006). "IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS". Encyclopædia Iranica. XIII (4): 344–377.
  3. ↑ Persian at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022) Closed access icon
  4. ↑ Skjaervo, Prods Oktor (2009). "Old Iranian". In Windfuhr, Gernot (ed.). The Iranian languages. New York: Routledge. pp. 43–45. ISBN 978-0-7007-1131-4.
  5. ↑ Lazard 1975: "The language known as New Persian, which usually is called at this period (early Islamic times) by the name of Dari or Farsi-Dari, can be classified linguistically as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of Sassanian Iran, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenids. Unlike the other languages and dialects, ancient and modern, of the Iranian group such as Avestan, Parthian, Soghdian, Kurdish, Balochi, Pashto, etc., Old Persian, Middle Persian, and New Persian represent one and the same language at three states of its history. It had its origin in Fars (the true Persian country from the historical point of view) and is differentiated by dialectical features, still easily recognizable from the dialect prevailing in north-western and eastern Iran."
  6. 1 2 Agnes Korn. Isoglosses and subdivisions of Iranian. Journal of Historical Linguistics, 2019, 9 (2), pp.239-281.⟨10.1075/jhl.17010.kor⟩. ⟨halshs-02266255⟩
  7. ↑ Paul, Ludwig. 1998. The Position of Zazaki among West Iranian Languages. Proceedings of the Third European Conference of Iranian Studies held in Cambridge, 11th to 15th September 1995. Part I: Old and Middle Iranian Studies ed. by Nicholas Sims-Williams, 163–177. Wiesbaden: Reichert.
  8. ↑ Windfuhr, Gernot (ed.). "INTRODUCTION TO THE IRANIAN LANGUAGES" in Windfuhr, Gernot. 2009. The Iranian languages. Oxon/New York: Routledge, p. 93
  9. ↑ Paul (1998), p. 170.
  10. ↑ Windfuhr (2009), pp. 19.
  11. ↑ Asatrian, Garnik (1995), "DIMLĪ", Encyclopædia Iranica, VI (5): 405–411, retrieved 7 June 2020
  12. ↑ Asatrian (1995).
  13. 1 2 Skjaervo, Prods Oktor (2009). "Middle West Iranian". In Windfuhr, Gernot (ed.). The Iranian Languages. New York: Routledge. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-7007-1131-4.
  14. ↑ Paul (2009), p. 549.
  15. 1 2 Jackson, Abraham Valentine Williams (1892). An Avesta Grammar in Comparison With Sanskrit. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer. pp. 106–108.
  16. ↑ Lecoq, Pierre (1989). "Les Dialectes Caspiens Et Les Dialectes Du Nord-ouest De L'iran". In Schmitt, Rüdiger (ed.). Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum (in French). Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag. 303, 308. ISBN 3-88226-413-6.
  17. ↑ Пахалина (1999), p. 76, 155, 159, 162.
  18. ↑ Yarshater, Ehsan (1970). "The Tati Dialects of Tārom". In Boyce, Mary; Gershevitch, Ilya (eds.). W. B. Henning Memorial Volume. Asia Major Library. London: Lund Humphries. p. 460.
  19. ↑ کارنگ, عبدالعلی (1952). تاتی و هرزنی دو لهجه از زبان باستان آذربایجان [Tati, Harzani, two dialects from the ancient language of Azerbaijan] (in Persian). تبریز: چاپخانه‌ی شفق. p. 84.
  20. ↑ Гасанов, Агамали (1966). О "тайном" Языке Жителей Села Килит Нахичеванской Асср [About The "Secret" Language Of The Residents Of The Village Of Kilit, Nakhchivan Assr] (in Russian). Baku: ИЗДАТЕЛЬСТВО АКАДЕМИИ НАУК АЗЕРБАЙДЖАНСКОЙ ССР. p. 91.
  21. ↑ MacKenzie, D. N (1966). The Dialect of Awroman (Hawrāmān-ī Luhōn). Copenhagen: Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. p. 23.
  22. ↑ Korn, Agnes (2006). "Counting Sheep and Camels in Balochi". Indoiranskoe jazykoznanie i tipologija jazykovyx situacij. Sbornik statej k 75-letiju professora A. L. Grjunberga (1930–1995). Nauka. pp. 201–212.
  23. ↑ Asadi, As.; Anonby, E. (2014). Bakhtiari Studies:Phonology, Text, Lexicon. Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis. p. 215.
  24. ↑ Perry, John R.; Windfuhr, Gernot (2009). "Persian and Tajik". The Iranian Languages. New York: Routledge. p. 445. ISBN 978-0-7007-1 131-4.
  25. ↑ Borjian, Habib (2012). "Kashan. ix. The Median Dialects of Kashan". Encyclopædia Iranica. XVI (1): 42.
  26. ↑ Lecoq, Pierre (1989). "Les Dialectes Caspiens Et Les Dialectes Du Nord-ouest De L'iran". In Schmitt, Rüdiger (ed.). Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum (in French). Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag. 301, 309, 314, 318. ISBN 3-88226-413-6.
  27. ↑ Gholami, Saloumeh (2024). Gorani in Its Historical and Linguistic Context. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 73, 88. ISBN 978-3111168685.
  28. ↑ Johnson, Edwin Lee (1917). Historical Grammar of the Ancient Persian Language. New York: American Book Company. p. 198.
  29. ↑ Schmitt, Rüdiger (2008). "Old Persian". In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-0521684941.
  30. 1 2 Windfuhr, Gernot (ed.). 2009. The Iranian languages. Oxon/New York: Routledge, p. 22
  31. ↑ Selcan (1998), p. 243, 257.
  32. ↑ Yarshater (1960), p. 279, 282.
  33. 1 2 Yarshater, Ehsan (2009). "Four Tati Sub-Dialects". In Sundermann, Werner; Hintze, Almut; de Blois, François (eds.). Exegisti monumenta. Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams. Harrassowitz. p. 550. ISBN 978-3-447-05937-4.
  34. ↑ Hassanzadeh-Nodehi, Ramin (2025). Towards a grammar of the Semnāni language (PhD thesis). Sapienza – Università di Roma. pp. 49, 53.
  35. ↑ Borjian (2026), p. 22-23.
  36. ↑ Borjian (2026), p. 24.
  37. ↑ Paul (1998).
  38. ↑ Windfuhr, Gernot (ed.). 2009. The Iranian languages. Oxon/New York: Routledge, p. 23
  39. ↑ Selcan, Zülfü (1998). Grammatik der Zaza-Sprache Nord-Dialekt (Dersim-Dialekt) (in German). Berlin: Wissenschaft & Technik Verlag. p. 55. ISBN 3-928943-96-0.
  40. ↑ Paul, Ludwig. 1998. The Position of Zazaki among West Iranian Languages. In Nicholas Sims-Williams (ed.), Proceedings of the Third European Conference of Iranian Studies held in Cambridge, 11th to 15th September 1995. Part I: Old and Middle Iranian Studies, 163-177. Wiesbaden: Ludwig Reichert.
  41. ↑ Windfuhr, Gernot L.. "CENTRAL DIALECTS." Encyclopaedia Iranica. Published December 15, 1991. https://doi.org/10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_7633
  42. 1 2 Stilo, Donald. "Isfahan xxi. PROVINCIAL DIALECTS." Encyclopaedia Iranica. Published December 15, 2007. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/isfahan-xxi-provincial-dialects/
  43. 1 2 3 Windfuhr, Gernot (ed.). 2009. The Iranian languages. Oxon/New York: Routledge, p. 26
  44. ↑ Parsafar, Parviz (2010). "Syntax, Morphology, and Semantics of Ezafe". Iranian Studies. 43 (5): 637–640.
  45. ↑ Kiss, Tibor; Alexiadou, Artemis (13 November 2015). Syntax - Theory and Analysis. Volume 3. Walter de Gruyter. p. 50. ISBN 978-3-11-039315-6.
  46. ↑ Hock, Hans Henrich; Bashir, Elena (24 May 2016). The Languages and Linguistics of South Asia: A Comprehensive Guide. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-042338-9.
  47. ↑ Bhatia, Tej K.; Ritchie, William C. (2006). The Handbook of Bilingualism. pp. 789–790.
  48. ↑ Larson, Richard K. and Hiroko Yamakido. 2006. Zazaki “double ezafe” as double case-marking. Paper presented at the Annual meeting of the Linguistic Society of America, Albuquerque, NM.
  49. ↑ Windfuhr, G. L. (1979). Persian Grammar: History and State of its Study. The Hague: Mouton. pp. 27–28.
  50. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Northwestern Iranian". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  51. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Southwestern Iranian". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  52. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Zaza". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  53. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Tatic". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  54. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Gorani". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  55. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Balochic". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  56. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Caspian". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  57. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Komisenian". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  58. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Semnani-Biyabuneki". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  59. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Central Iran Kermanic". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  60. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Laki-Kurdish". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  61. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Bashkardi". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  62. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Fars Dialects". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  63. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Farsic-Caucasian Tat". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  64. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Kumzari". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  65. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Larestani". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  66. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.). "Luric-Dezfulic". Glottolog . Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  67. ↑ Erik Anonby, Mortaza Taheri-Ardali & Amos Hayes (2019) The Atlas of the Languages of Iran (ALI). Iranian Studies 52. A Working Classification
  68. ↑ Windfuhr, G. L. (1991). "CENTRAL DIALECTS". Encyclopædia Iranica. V (3): 242–243.
  69. ↑ Borjian, Habib (2019) Journal of Persianate Studies 2, Median Succumbs to Persian after Three Millennia of Coexistence: Language Shift in the Central Iranian Plateau, p. 70
  70. ↑ Pierre Lecoq. 1989. "Les dialectes caspiens et les dialectes du nord-ouest de l'Iran," Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum. Ed. Rüdiger Schmitt. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, p. 297

Bibliography

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Further reading

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