Latin for travellers

Latin (lingua latīna), the language of ancient Rome, has greatly influenced many languages. The Romance languages (chiefly French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Catalan and Romanian) are direct descendants of Latin, and Latin has had some influence on all the other modern European languages. Most European languages use the Latin alphabet, and even those that don't have inherited some Latin words.

Latin was the sole liturgical language in the Roman Catholic Church until the second half of the 20th century and is still sometimes used. It is still an official language of the Holy See and Vatican City, and is used for official announcements and documents – and it is the language of much of older Christian music.

Latin was a lingua franca for educated people across Europe throughout the Middle Ages and for much of the post-Renaissance period. In English and many other languages, much of the terminology in law, medicine and other sciences is derived from Latin. Often there are two ways to say something; where many people would use words from Anglo-Saxon like "He broke his leg", a doctor might use Latin-derived terms as in "He fractured his tibia".

Even though Latin is still widely taught in high schools and universities, the language is rarely used to communicate person to person. However, travellers often encounter written Latin on inscriptions at historic sites, tombstones and old monuments. Latin abbreviations are also commonly used in university degrees. Not only that, but scientific names of organisms are written in Latin, so knowing Latin can be useful in botanical and wildlife tourism.

Pronunciation guide

After the fall of the Roman Empire, Latin was mostly a written language of people who acquired it in adulthood or schooling. This led to it developing local pronunciations in school and ordinary usage. Those pronunciations diverge – sometimes widely – from the pronunciation in Roman times. English Latin pronunciation, used in the Anglican church, is particularly idiosyncratic, and fluent Latin speakers not familiar with its peculiarities might have problems understanding it.

There are two widely-used pronunciation standards for Latin today. Classical Latin is a reconstruction by linguists of how Latin was most likely to have been spoken by upper class Romans around the time of Julius Caesar and Augustus. Ecclesiastical Latin is the pronunciation officially used by the Roman Catholic Church, based on Italian pronunciation.

The Latin alphabet had only 23 letters during Roman times, lacking the letters J, U and W. These letters originated in medieval times, with J originating as a variant of I, and U and W originating as variants of V. The letter C was originally used to represent both the C and G sounds, but a separate letter G was created around the 3rd century B.C. by modifying the letter C so the two sounds could be distinguished in writing.

Vowels

Classical Latin distinguished between long and short vowels. In modern texts for Latin learners, a macron (e.g. ā) indicates that the vowel is supposed to be long. However, vowel length was often not indicated at all in Roman-era texts, and those that did so used the apex (e.g. á) instead of the macron. This distinction in vowel length has largely been lost in Ecclesiastical Latin.

a: like gut
ā: like father
e: like ten
ē: like make
i: like pin
ī: like machine
o: like not
ō: like note
u: like foot, often written as "v"
ū: like moon, often written as "v", "v́" or "v̄"
y: mostly used in Greek loanwords, representing its Greek vocalic value, close to French "u", between English "ee" and "oo"
ȳ: same as y

Consonants

The consonants C and G are always pronounced hard in Classical Latin, but become soft before specific vowels in Ecclesiastical Latin.

b: like bed
c: like skip, or like church (Ecclesiastical, before "ae", "e", "i", "oe", or "y")
d: like dog
f: like fun
g: like go, or like gel (Ecclesiastical, before "ae", "e", "i", "oe", or "y"). May be written as a "c" in older texts from around the 3rd century B.C. or earlier
h: like help (Classical), or silent (Ecclesiastical)
j: like yes, often written as "i"
k: like skip
l: like love
m: like mother
n: like nice
p: like spin
q: like squirrel
r: like Spanish carro
s: like sing but further back in the mouth, the same as σ in Greek (Classical), like sun, or like haze (Ecclesiastical, between vowels)
t: like stop
v: like win (Classical), or like van (Ecclesiastical)
w: only found in loan words. Usually pronounced the same as in the language of origin
x: like fox or exam
z: like haze (Classical), or like toads (Ecclesiastical)

Common digraphs

ae or æ: a diphthong a + e (Classical), or like ten (Ecclesiastical)
au: like out
ei: like they
eu: like Baywatch
oe or œ: a diphthong o + e (Classical), or like ten (Ecclesiastical)
ui: like win
ch: mostly used in Greek loanwords, representing its Classical Greek sound, like chemistry: lachrima, schola, architectus
gn: a consonant cluster g + n in (Classical), or like lasagna (Ecclesiastical)
ph: like philosophy (Ecclesiastical)
sc: like scan, or like ship (Ecclesiastical, before "ae", "e", "i", "oe", or "y")
th: mostly used in Greek loanwords, representing its Classical Greek sound, like Thomas

Grammar

Suffixes (called declensions) are used extensively to specify the grammatical use of nouns, pronouns and adjectives, and others (called conjugations) show the grammatical use of verbs. They specify grammatical gender (masculine, feminine or neuter), number, and case (there are seven of them) in adjectives, nouns, and pronouns, and person, number, tense, voice, mood and aspect of verbs. Word order is relatively free, especially in poetry. Furthermore, Classical Latin did not separate words from each other or have punctuation. The result can therefore be ambiguous, so that you may need to understand the context in order to decode a phrase. However, Church Latin often does put spaces or other demarcations between words and use punctuation.

While Latin grammar is much more complex than that of English, modern Latin use is often limited to set phrases, which can be recognised as such.

Phrase list

Latin is commonly used on inscriptions at historic sites, tombstones and pre-modern monuments, especially in the West, and also in many churches and sacred works of Christian art. Common Latin expressions include:

Agnus Deī: Lamb of God, referring to Jesus, whose sacrifice takes away the sins of the world (according to Christianity).
AD (annō Dominī): In the year of the Lord. Refers to the common era, after the birth of Jesus.
Avē Marīa: Hail, Mary. The name of a prayer, often set to music; the phrase is also often seen in artistic representations of the Virgin Mary.
Benedictus: Blessed
Cathedra: Chair. In modern Christian contexts, refers to the bishop's throne in a cathedral. In an academic context it signifies an official professorial post, or a specialized field of study.
Crēdō in ūnum Deum: I believe in one God
Dōna nōbīs pācem.: Grant us peace.
Extrā omnēs: "Everyone out." Used to order all non-Cardinals to leave the Sistine Chapel before a Papal Conclave commences.
Glōria in excelsīs Deō: Glory to God in the highest
Habēmus pāpam: "We have a Pope." Used to announce the election of a new Pope.
Miserēre nōbīs / Miserēre nostrī: Have mercy on us.
INRI: stands for Iesvs Nazarenvs Rex Ivdæorvm (Jesus the Nazarene, King of the Jews), a phrase the Gospel of John says was written in Hebrew, Greek and Latin on Jesus' cross.
In nōmine Patris et Fīliī et Spīritūs Sānctī: "In the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit", said by Catholics when making the sign of the cross
Jūbilāte Deō: Shout joyfully for God
Ora pro nobis: Pray for us. Seen in many inscriptions on monuments in churches and the like.
Pater noster: Our father. The name of a very common prayer, where it refers to God.
Pontifex maximus: Greatest priest. Used to refer to the Pope in his role as the supreme leader of the Roman Catholic Church, and formerly to the chief high priest of pre-Christian Rome.
Prīmus inter parēs: First among equals. Often used to describe the role of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople as the leader of the Eastern Orthodox churches, the Archbishop of Canterbury as the leading clergyman of the Anglican Church or archbishops in general among bishops: they have a leading role, but little formal power above that of their peers. Also used to describe similar roles elsewhere, e.g., of a dean among professors of the faculty.
R. (rēx or rēgīna): The King or Queen. Refers to the monarch or the government of a monarchy,
RIP (requiēscat in pāce): May he/she rest in peace. Used as a blessing that the deceased is at peace.
Requiem aeternam dōna eīs: Grant them eternal rest. On gravestones you might encounter the singular form Requiem aeternam dōna eī.
Sānctus: Holy
Sēde vacante: Empty seat. Today used to describe a period when a bishop or archbishop position (most commonly that of the Pope, who is Bishop of Rome) is vacant.
Tē Deum laudāmus: Thee, Oh God, we praise
pāx: Peace. Often used to indicate periods of relative peace brought about by submission to the dominance of a single hegemon (e.g. Pāx Rōmāna, Pāx Britannica, Pāx Americāna).
pro patria: For the fatherland. In patriotic contexts, including on memorials for soldiers perished in wars.
vēnī vīdī vīcī: "I came, I saw, I conquered", popularly attributed to Julius Caesar

Phrases used in everyday English

ipsō factō: By the fact itself
mea culpa: My fault
et al. (et aliī): And others
℞ (recipe): Take this. Used on prescriptions.
e.g. (exemplī grātiā): For the sake of an example
etc. (et cētera): And the other things
i.e. (id est): That is
quid prō quō: Something for something.

Pre-modern inscriptions

AUC (ab urbe condita or anno urbis conditae): In the year of the founding of the city. Refers to Rome's legendary establishment by Romulus.
C. (Gāius): Before "G" was recognized as a separate letter, the letter "C" was used for that sound instead. Gaius was a common male personal name in Ancient Rome.
Cn. (Gnaeus): Another common male personal name in Ancient Rome.
HSE (hic sepultus est): Here is buried.
Kal. (kalendae): The first day of a month, used in dates within the previous month.
SPQR (senātus populusque rōmānus): The senate and people of Rome. It was commonly used to identify the citizens of the Roman Empire, and is still used by the municipal government of modern Rome.

Academic phrases

The abbreviations for various university degrees were derived from Latin. In addition, some old European and American universities may still have their degree certificates written in Latin, and the universities of Oxford and Cambridge still conduct their graduation ceremonies in Latin. In the United States, Latin honours are often awarded to bachelor's degree graduates in recognition of academic excellence.

MBBS or MB BCh (Medicinae Baccalaureus, Baccalaureus Chirurgiae): Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery. The abbreviation "MBBS" is bilingual; the "MB" part is from Latin (Medicinae Baccalaureus), and the "BS" part is from English (Bachelor of Surgery).
MD (Medicinae Doctor): Doctor of Medicine
PhD (Philosophiae Doctor): Doctor of Philosophy (which can be awarded in any academic field)
LL.B. (Lēgum Baccalaureus): Bachelor of Laws
JD (Jūris Doctor): Doctor of Law
LL.M. (Lēgum Magister): Master of Laws
LL.D. (Lēgum Doctor): Doctor of Laws
A.B. (Artium Baccalaureus): Bachelor of Arts (in some universities may be awarded for all bachelor's degrees regardless of academic field)
approbatur: Approved. Used as the lowest passing grade or the shortest university syllabus (a minor).
cum laude: With praise. Used as (mid) grade or syllabus in parts of Europe. In the U.S., this is the lowest-ranking Latin honour awarded to bachelor's degree graduates
magna cum laude: With great praise
summa cum laude: With highest praise
laudatur: Praise. Highest grade or syllabus, the latter that of a major.
honoris causa: "For the sake of the honour" — indicates that the degree (most commonly a doctorate) awarded is honorary

Some other phrases often used in academic context:

alma mater: Nourishing mother. Refers to the school or university from which a person has graduated.
alumni: Foster children. Refers to the graduates of a school or university. The singular is alumnus (male graduate). For women, alumna (female graduate), plural alumnae.

Patriotism and municipal pride

Some countries, regions, cities and institutions (schools, societies, sports clubs etc.) have adopted Latin phrases as their mottos, after Rome's example of SPQR. You will likely spot these on coats of arms, seals, war memorials, banknotes, coins, or even street furniture such as lampposts and bins. A few examples:

A mari usque ad mare: "From sea to sea" - the Canadian national motto
E pluribus unum: "Out of many, one" - a traditional motto of the United States
Nemo me impune lacessit: "No-one provokes me with impunity" - Scotland's national motto
Excelsior: "Ever upward" - state motto of New York
Domine dirige nos: "Oh Lord, guide us" - motto of the City of London

Latin as a "neutral" language

In a multilingual or international context, especially in Europe, Latin is sometimes used to avoid the appearance of favouring one language or country over another. As a "dead" language with no more native speakers but which many Europeans can claim partial heritage from, Latin is useful when neutrality or unity are needed:

Confoederatio Helvetica (CH): The Swiss Confederation. Having a Latin official name avoids favouring any of the four official languages of Switzerland. You'll most commonly see the letters CH on Swiss-registered vehicles' licence plates abroad and in the URLs of Swiss websites. Swiss postage stamps bear the Latin name Helvetia.
Belgium: The country's English name comes directly from Latin. Belgium is used on the logos and kits of the Belgian national sports teams, rather than Dutch België or French Belgique, as language politics in the country can be divisive.

The European Union has 27 official languages, and occasionally uses Latin where cross-border clarity demands it, but use of one of the widely-understood official languages would seem prejudicial:

In varietate concordia: "United in diversity", the EU's motto
Societas Europaea (SE): "European Company", for a commercial entity registered under EU corporate law. Examples include Airbus SE and Allianz SE.

Some EU institution domain names also use Latin: https://consilium.europa.eu/ leads to the European Council's website, while https://curia.europa.eu/ is the European Court of Justice.

Names of organisms

Taxonomy (Ancient Greek for "method of arrangement") is the science of naming and grouping biological organisms, traditionally written in Latin but using a lot of Greek terms; the study of these, from sources such as the Wikipedia list of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names, will benefit the science-minded traveller.

Taxonomy employs binomial nomenclature. Each species is given a name that consists of two parts: the generic name and the specific name. The generic name identifies the genus under which the species belongs, whereas the specific name distinguishes the species within the genus. For example:

Achillea millefolium: Yarrow. Mentioned often in the Illiad as used often as a blood-staunching balm by protagonist Achilles, hence Achillea; millefolium means "of a thousand leaves".
Equus caballus: Horse. Both the genus name Equus and the specifying caballus part refer to horses in Latin.
Homo sapiens: Modern humans. Homo means man in Latin, and the sapiens part, which indicates the modern species under it, means discerning or wise.
Malus domestica: Domestic apple. Malus means apple tree and domestica means domestic (of the house / domus).
Lactuca sativa: Lettuce. Lactuca is the vegetable's Roman name, after its white, "milky" (lactea) sap. Sativa means "cultivated".
Passer domesticus: House sparrow. Passer is the bird's Roman name; it is the type species (species typica) of its genus, which is the type genus (genus typica) of its family Passeridae, the familia typica of the enormous order Passeriformes, which contains more than half of all bird species.
Phoenix dactylifera: Date palm. Phoenix derives from the Greek word for "date palm", phoinikós; dactylifera means "date-bearing", from dactyl (Greek for "finger" = date) + foros, "to bear".
Punica granatum: Pomegranate. Punica means "from Carthage" (its Roman name was malus punica); granatum means "grainy", i. e. "seeded".
Ursus arctos: Brown bear. The Latin ursus and Ancient Greek arctos both mean "bear".

To indicate the individual subspecies within a species, a "subspecific name" is added after the binomial name of the parent species. This is called trinomial nomenclature. For example:

Amazona ochrocephala panamensis: Panama yellow-headed parrot. Amazona reflects the bird's fame as a symbol of the Amazon Jungle; ochrocephala is Greek for "yellow-headed" and panamensis means "from Panama".
Canis lupus familiaris: Dog. This is an obsolete classification, as a subspecies of Canis lupus the wolf. Nowadays, Canis familiaris is the more prevalent name.
Gorilla gorilla gorilla: Western lowland gorillas. The first Gorilla indicates the gorilla genus, the second gorilla indicates the lowland gorilla species, and the third gorilla indicates the particular subspecies under it. Quite often, type species have such seemingly redundant names.

The whole scientific hierarchy of species is based on Latinised names. For example, Panthera pardus (the leopard) and Panthera onca (the jaguar) belong to the genus Panthera, subfamily Pantherinae, family Felidae (from fēlēs, "cat"), suborder Feliformia, order Carnivora (from carnivorus, "flesh-eating"), infraclass Placentalia (from placenta uterī, "placenta"), class Mammalia (from mamma, "breast"), phylum Chordata (from corda, "cord"), and finally kingdom Animalia (from animal, "animal", "living").