Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955)

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Biography

Albert Einstein was a theoretical physicist, best known for his theory of relativity and his famous mass-energy equivalence formula: E = mc².

Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize.

Albert Einstein has Jewish Roots.

He also made important contributions to the development of quantum mechanics. Einstein's research on the structure of matter, space, and time as well as on the nature of gravitation significantly changed the previously valid Newtonian world view: Relativity and quantum mechanics form the basis of modern physics. Einstein also contributed to philosophy of science. He received the Nobel Prize in Physics 1921 "for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the Law of the Photoelectric Effect."^[1]

Birth and Education

Albert Einstein was born in the city of Ulm in Württemberg, Germany, on 14 March 1879. He was the son of Hermann Einstein and Pauline Einstein, née Koch.^[2][3] Six weeks after his birth, his parents moved the family to Munich, where Albert spent most of his early years and began his education at the Luitpold Gymnasium.^[4]

His family later moved to Italy, and Albert continued his education at the Old Cantonal School Aarau, Switzerland, and gave up his Württemberg and thus also his German citizenship.^[5] In 1896 he entered the Swiss Federal Polytechnic Institute, now known as ETH in Zurich and trained to be a teacher of mathematics and physics.^[4] He graduated in 1900.^[5][6] In 1901 he was granted Swiss citizenship.^[7]

Career

Since Albert wasn't immediately able to find a permanent teaching position, he took employment as a Swiss patent examiner/technical assistant in Bern in 1902.^[5][8]

In 1905, his "annus mirabilis" (miraculous year), while still working at the Swiss Patent Office, Einstein published four papers: on the photoelectric effect, on Brownian motion, on special relativity, and on mass-energy equivalence.

He submitted his doctoral dissertation in 1905 and received his Ph.D. from Zurich University in 1906.^[9] In Zurich, he received his first academic appointment in 1909, as professor extraordinarius for theoretical physics at the University of Zurich.^[5] In 1911 he became a full professor of theoretical physics at the German University in Prague and returned to Zurich in 1912 to fill a similar position at the ETH.^[4][10]

In 1914, Einstein moved to Berlin, where he joined the Prussian Academy of Sciences and held a research professorship without teaching obligations at the university.^[8] He became a German citizen again, this time Prussian.^[4] In 1917, he was appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin, a position he held until 1933.^[11]

In 1915, he published his general theory of relativity.^[5] The confirmation by Eddington in 1919 brought Einstein fame and international recognition, which he used as a platform for social concerns. In 1921 he made his first trip to the United States along with Chaim Weizmann to raise funds for the creation of the Hebrew University in Palestine.^[8] Albert and his second wife, Elsa, traveled aboard the Rotterdam, naming his "brother" R. Einstein as a contact in New York.^[12] (Albert didn't have a brother, so "R." was probably a cousin.)

Visiting Professorship in Leiden, Netherlands
Einstein first visited Leiden in February 1911. He and his first wife, Mileva, stayed with Prof. Hendrik Lorentz during that week. Einstein greatly enjoyed the hospitality and the scientific discussions. He expressed great interest in Heike Kamerlingh Onnes's research on extreme cold. From 1916 to 1933 Einstein visited Leiden frequently ("That delightful patch of land on this barren earth."). In 1919, the Leiden academic world was searching for a successor for Prof. Lorentz; and Paul Ehrenfest, Lorentz, and Kamerlingh Onnes tried to lure Einstein to accept a full professorship. It was definitely appealing—Einstein's best friend Paul Ehrenfest was there, together with his wife Tatyana Afanasyeva. Einstein wanted to exchage idea’s on his relativity principles with Kamerlingh Onnes and with astronomer Wim de Sitter. But despite his love for Leiden, Einstein opted for loyalty and decided to stay in Berlin. When it was clear that Einstein would not accept a full professorship, Leiden switched to plan B—a guest professorship. It would involve being in Leiden for three or four weeks a year. That appealed to Einstein; he described it as a "comet-like existence". From 1920 onwards, Einstein regularly spent a month in Leiden as a guest professor. He visited Leiden for the last time in April 1930.^[13][14][15]

In 1922, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1921.^[11] The delay was due to a conclusion made by the Nobel Committee for Physics that the 1921 candidates had not "met the criteria outlined in the will of Alfred Nobel". The committee argued over the merits of awarding the prize for the very complex and misunderstood Theory of Relativity, which they had trouble proving. They reached a compromise and awarded the prize for Albert's explanation of the photoelectric effect (a phenomenon in which electrons are emitted from a metal sheet only under certain illuminations), which he had published in 1905. The committee wrote to Einstein on 10 November 1922: "...the Royal Academy of Sciences has decided to award you last year's Nobel Prize for physics, in consideration of your work in theoretical physics and in particular your discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect, but without taking into account the value which will be accorded your relativity and gravitation theories after these are confirmed in the future."^[16]

Stay in De Haan, Belgium

When Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933, Albert and Elsa Einstein were returning from the United States, where Einstein had given a series of guest lectures in Pasadena. On board the Belgenland they learned that it would be dangerous for them to re-enter Germany. The ocean liner docked in Antwerp, Belgium, on 28 March 1933, where the Einsteins were greeted by city officials, professors, friends, and journalists. At the Century Hotel, Einstein announced his decision not to continue his journey to Germany. Supported by friends, including King Albert I of Belgium, Albert and Elsa stayed in De Haan on the Belgian coast, where they lived under police protection. In early April 1933, Albert returned his German passport at the German embassy in Brussels, ​​thereby renouncing his German citizenship. On 8 September 1933 Albert and Elsa left De Haan for the United Kingdom.^[17][18]

Life in America

Initially, Albert and Elsa went to England, where they stayed until they traveled to the United States, leaving from Southampton on 7 October 1933 aboard the ship Westernland, arriving in New York City on 17 October 1933.^[19] Soon after, Einstein began working at the Institute for Advanced Studies in Princeton.^[4][8][20]

On 24 Mar 1934, Albert's German citizenship was annulled by the Nazi regime.^[21][22]

For legal purposes, the island of Bermuda (British Overseas Territory) became the short-term official residence because Albert and his family were required to formally begin the process of becoming an American citizen while living overseas; they opted to make the application from Bermuda. Accompanied by Elsa, stepdaughter Margot, son-in-law Dr. Dmitri Marianoff, and personal secretary Helen Dukas, he left his home in Trenton, New Jersey, and sailed from New York to Bermuda in May 1935 aboard the Queen of Bermuda. They stayed for about a week.^[23] On 1 June 1935 they traveled back aboard the Queen of Bermuda and immigrated to New York City, New York, United States, on 3 June 1935.^[24]

In August 1935 Einstein bought a single family home at 112 Mercer Street in Princeton, Mercer County, New Jersey (near the institute), where he lived with his wife Elsa, his stepdaughter Margot and his secretary Helen Dukas.^[20] Albert declared his intention to apply for US citizenship on 15 January 1936.^[25][26] By the time Albert petitioned for Naturalization, Elsa had passed away.^[27]

In August 1939, Einstein wrote a letter to US President Franklin Roosevelt, which "eventually led to the establishment of the Manhattan Project and the US development of the atomic bomb".^[8]

On 1 October 1940, Albert took the Oath of Allegiance, becoming a naturalized United States citizen,^[28][29] while retaining his Swiss citizenship.^[8]

At the time of the census in 1940 and 1950, he was widower and resided in Princeton with his (step)daughter Margot, his sister Maja Winteler, and Helen Dukas,^[30][31] his secretary and housekeeper.^[32]

In America, Einstein was committed to the process of establishing and maintaining a homeland for Jews, emphasizing the need for equality of rights between Jews and Arabs.^[8] After World War II, he was offered the Presidency of the State of Israel, which he declined, although he continued his collaboration with Dr. Chaim Weizmann in establishing the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.^[4] Einstein also advocated for nuclear disarmament, world peace, and civil rights for all.^[8] He was once asked what weapons he thought would be used in World War III and he replied: "Well I don't know, but I can tell you what weapons will be used in World War IV: Stones."^[33]

Marriages and Children

Albert married first Mileva Marić on 6 January 1903 in Bern, Switzerland.^[34] She was the daughter of Marija Ruzić and Miloš Marić of Titel in today's Serbia.^[35][36] Albert and Mileva had a daughter and two sons together:^[37]

• Lieserl, born out of wedlock in 1902^[38] and perhaps died young or was given up for adoption^[39]
• Hans Albert, born 14 May 1904 in Bern, Switzerland
• Eduard, born 28 July 1910 in Zurich, Switzerland

Albert had started an affair with his cousin Elsa (Einstein) Löwenthal in 1912.^[36] As a result, Albert and Mileva divorced in February 1919,^[40] and he married Elsa on 2 June 1919 in Berlin.^[41][42][43] Elsa was born in January 1876 in Hechingen, Prussia, the daughter of Rudolf Einstein and Fanny, née Koch. She was Albert's first cousin through their mothers and second cousin through their fathers. She died in 1936.^[44]

Death and Legacy

Albert Einstein died on 18 April 1955 at Princeton, New Jersey.^[4][45] "He had left behind specific instructions regarding his remains: cremate them, and scatter the ashes secretly in order to discourage idolaters." Against his and his family's wishes, the pathologist on call at Princeton Hospital removed Einstein's brain, later receiving his son's approval for the brain to be studied for scientific purposes only.^[46]

Albert left a will dated 18 March 1950, leaving his written legacy to the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, which is now showcased in the Albert Einstein Archives there.^[47]

Timeline

The majority of the information in the detailed timeline linked below comes directly from The Albert Einstein Archives at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem website.^[48] Supplemental information such as awards he received, his published works, etc. are also included in the timeline and are sourced appropriately.

• LINK: Life of Albert Einstein - Timeline

Sources

1. ↑ The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921. NobelPrize.org. Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2023. Accessed 18 Feb 2023.
2. ↑ Geburtenregister Ulm 1808-1888, Germany, Landesarchiv Baden-Württemberg, Personenstandsregister jüdischer Gemeinden in Württemberg, Baden und Hohenzollern, J 386 Bü 596, Geburten 1808-1888, entry 7.
3. ↑ Familienbuch Ulm 1800-1926, Personenstandsregister jüdischer Gemeinden in Württemberg, Baden und Hohenzollern (18. - 20. Jahrhundert), p. 203. [translated: Family book Ulm 1800-1926, civil status registers of Jewish communities in Württemberg, Baden and Hohenzollern (18th - 20th centuries)].
4. ↑ ^{4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6} Albert Einstein – Biographical. NobelPrize.org. Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2023. Accessed 18 Feb 2023. From: Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901-1921, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1967.
5. ↑ ^{5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4} Einstein-website.de: Zeittafel, engl. Einstein-website.de: Chronology of Einstein's Life.
6. ↑ Physics Today, 14 Mar 2017: Albert Einstein.
7. ↑ Stadt Zürich: Chronologie zum Schweizer Bürgerrecht Albert Einsteins.
8. ↑ ^{8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7} Schulman, Robert J. "Einstein, Albert" in The Oxford Companion to United States History. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001). Online at Archive.org, p. 218.
9. ↑ Universität Zürich: Albert Einsteins Doktoratsurkunde ist zurück an der UZH.
10. ↑ Einstein-website.de: Albert Einstein's Years in Prague, 1911-1912.
11. ↑ ^{11.0 11.1} Albert Einstein – Facts. NobelPrize.org. Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2023. Accessed 18 Feb 2023.
12. ↑ "New York Passenger Arrival Lists (Ellis Island), 1892-1924", database with images, (FamilySearch: 18 December 2020), Albert Einstein, 1921.
13. ↑ van Delft, Dirk. Albert Einstein in Leiden. In: Physics Today, 1 Apr 2006.
14. ↑ Historiek: Albert Einstein kwam graag in Nederland.
15. ↑ Leiden University: Einstein in Leiden.
16. ↑ Okun, Lev. The Concept of Mass. In: Physics Today, published June 1989. Online at p. 35 and at Google Books, p. 15.
17. ↑ Kockartz, Andreas. Albert Einstein lebte 1933 sechs Monate lang in De Haan an der belgischen Nordseeküste. In: vrt, 24 Apr 2025.
18. ↑ Nach seiner Emigration in die USA wurde Albert Einstein als Weltweiser geschätzt. Er starb am 18. April 1955: Der Papst der Physik verlegt seinen Sitz. In: Berliner Zeitung, 16 Apr 2005.
19. ↑ "New York, New York Passenger and Crew Lists, 1909, 1925-1958", (FamilySearch: Sat Apr 12 11:25:27 UTC 2025), Entry for Albert Einstein, 1933.
20. ↑ ^{20.0 20.1} Einstein-website.de: Albert Einstein's Years in Princeton (USA).
21. ↑ Ancestry.com. "Germany, Index of Jews Whose German Nationality was Annulled by Nazi Regime, 1935-1944". [database/image on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2011. Ancestry image.
22. ↑ WDR: 24.03.1934: Albert Einstein wird deutsche Staatsbürgerschaft aberkannt.
23. ↑ Forever Bermuda: History: When Albert Einstein Called Bermuda Home.
24. ↑ "New York, New York Passenger and Crew Lists, 1909, 1925-1957," database with images, (FamilySearch: 11 December 2020), Prof Elbert Einstein, 1935; citing Immigration, NY, NY, US, NARA microfilm publication T715 (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, n.d.).
25. ↑ "United States, New Jersey, Naturalization records from various counties, 1905-1944", database, (FamilySearch: 29 July 2020), Albert Einstein, 1936.
26. ↑ "New Jersey, Naturalization Records, 1796-1991", (FamilySearch: Sat Apr 12 06:12:06 UTC 2025), Entry for Albert Einstein and Elsa, 1936.
27. ↑ "New Jersey Naturalization Records, 1796-1991," database, (FamilySearch: 15 December 2020), Albert Einstein, 1935; citing Naturalization, NARA various NAID. Records of District Courts of the United States, 1685 - 2009, RG 21: includes image of his petition for naturalization, signed by Einstein.
28. ↑ "New Jersey, Naturalization Records, 1796-1991", (FamilySearch: Sat Apr 12 05:11:30 UTC 2025), Entry for Albert Einstein, 1940.
29. ↑ National Archives: Oath of Allegiance of Albert Einstein.
30. ↑ "United States Census, 1940," database with images, (FamilySearch: 7 May 2017), Albert Einstein, Princeton Borough, Mercer, NJ, USA; citing ED 11-64, sheet 10B, line 66, family 267, 16th Census of the US, 1940, NARA digital pub. T627. Records of the Bureau of the Census, 1790-2007, RG 29. Washington, D.C.: NARA, 2012, roll 2357.
31. ↑ "United States, Census, 1950", (FamilySearch: Mon Mar 17 18:46:44 UTC 2025), Entry for Albert Einstein and Margot Einstein, April 5, 1950.
32. ↑ Einstein-website.de: Kurzbiographie (short bio): Helen Dukas.
33. ↑ Jamie Katz. One of the Last Living Manhattan Project Scientists Looks Back at the Atomic Bomb Tests." In: Smithsonian Magazine online, 15 July 2020. Online at SmithsonianMag.com.
34. ↑ Njegovan, Drago. Mileva Marić-Einstein: Dragi moji kumovi, pisma Sidoniji i Djoki Gajin 1935-1941, str. (page) 25.
35. ↑ Transcription of the marriage record: Martin J. Klein, A. J. Kox, and Robert Schulmann (editors). The collected papers of Albert Einstein. Volume 5: The Swiss Years: Correspondence, 1902-1914. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1993. p. 9.
36. ↑ ^{36.0 36.1} Gagnon, Pauline. "The Forgotten Life of Einstein's First Wife." In: Scientific American. (Dec 2016). Online at ScientificAmerican.com.
37. ↑ Wikipedia: Einstein Family.
38. ↑ Njegovan, Drago. Mileva Marić-Einstein: Dragi moji kumovi, pisma Sidoniji i Djoki Gajin 1935-1941, str. (pages) 17, 25.
39. ↑ Smith, Shawn. Albert Einstein, Mileva Maric: The Love Letters. Edited by Jürgen Renn and Robert Schulmann, (Princeton University Press, 1992). Online with subscription at JSTOR. Accessed 5 Jan 2021.
40. ↑ Transcription of the divorce record: Diana Kormos Buchwald, Robert Schulmann, József Illy, Daniel J. Kennefick, & Tilman Sauer (editors). The collected papers of Albert Einstein. Volume 9: The Berlin Years: Correspondence January 1919-April 1920. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 2004. pp. 8-11.
41. ↑ Landesarchiv Berlin; Berlin, Deutschland; Personenstandsregister, Heiratsregister. Berlin, Germany, Marriages, 1874-1936, Wilmersdorf, 1919, Laufendenummer: 339. Marriage Record of Albert Einstein and Elsa Löwenthal, Ancestry Sharing Link, Ancestry Sharing Link, Ancestry Record 2957 #22154070, Ancestry.de.
42. ↑ Landesarchiv, Berlin, Deutschland. Heiratsregister der Berliner Standesämter 1874 - 1936. Digital Images. Berlin, Deutschland, Heiratsregister, 1874-1936, Wilmersdorf, 1919 (zum Erstregister erklärtes Zweitregister). Marriage Record of Albert Einstein and Elsa Löwenthal, Ancestry Sharing Link, Ancestry Sharing Link, Ancestry.de, Ancestry.com.
43. ↑ Transcription of the marriage record: Diana Kormos Buchwald, Robert Schulmann, József Illy, Daniel J. Kennefick, & Tilman Sauer (editors). The collected papers of Albert Einstein. Volume 9: The Berlin Years: Correspondence January 1919-April 1920. Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 2004. pp. 83-84.
44. ↑ Einstein-website.de: Kurzbiographie (short bio): Elsa Einstein.
45. ↑ Find A Grave, database and images (accessed 23 September 2018), memorial page for Albert Einstein (14 Mar 1879–18 Apr 1955), Find A Grave: Memorial #314; Maintained by Find A Grave: Cremated, Ashes scattered around the grounds of the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
46. ↑ Hughes, Virginia. "The Tragic Story of How Einstein’s Brain Was Stolen and Wasn’t Even Special". Published online at NationalGeographic.com, 21 April 2014, citing: Brian Burrell. Postcards from the Brain Museum. (New York, NY: Broadway Books: 2005) [not available online]
47. ↑ Einstein-website.de: Einsteins schriftlicher Nachlass (Einstein's written legacy).
48. ↑ Timeline: The Albert Einstein Archives at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

See also:

• Wikidata: Item Q937
• The Britannica Guide to the 100 Most Influential Scientists (2007), pp. 222, 235, 236, 248-259, 263 , 265, 268, 278, 279, 285, 297.
• The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein at Princeton.edu:
  1. Volume 1: The Early Years, 1879-1902, John Stachel, David C. Cassidy, and Robert Schulmann, eds., DEU; translated by Anna Beck ENG: p. 20, release from Wurttemberg citizenship; p. 239, Swiss citizenship; p. 241, Residency and good conduct for citizenship in Switzerland; pp. 269-270, Questionairre for Swiss citizenship; 332-333, footnote on 333, Mileva gave birth to a girl January 1902; pp. 370-377, March 1879-June 1902 timeline; p. 381, lists marriage date and place 6 Jan 1903 in Bern, Jan 1902 birth of daughter Lieserl.
  2. Volume 2: The Swiss Years: Writings, 1900-1909, John Stachel, David C. Cassidy, Jürgen Renn, and Robert Schulmann, eds., DEU; translated by Anna Beck ENG: his writings.
  3. Volume 3: The Swiss Years: Writings 1909-1911, Martin J. Klein, A. J. Kox, Jürgen Renn, and Robert Schulman, eds., DEU; translated by Anna Beck ENG: his writings.
  4. Volume 4: The Swiss Years: Writings 1912-1914, Martin J. Klein, A. J. Kox, Jürgen Renn, and Robert Schulman, eds., DEU; translated by Anna Beck ENG: his writings.
  5. Volume 5: The Swiss Years: Correspondence, 1902-1914, Martin J. Klein, A. J. Kox, and Robert Schulmann, eds., DEU; translated by Anna Beck ENG.
  6. Volume 6: The Berlin Years: Writings, 1914-1917, Martin J. Klein, A. J. Kox, and Robert Schulman, eds., DEU; translated by Alfred Engel ENG.
  7. Volume 7: The Berlin Years: Writings, 1918-1921, Michael Janssen, Robert Schulmann, József Illy, Christoph Lehner, and Diana Kormos Buchwald eds., DEU; translated by Alfred Engel ENG.
  8. Volume 8, Part A: The Berlin Years: Correspondence 1914-1917, Robert Schulmann, A. J. Kox, Michel Janssen, and József Illy, eds., DEU; translated by Ann M. Hentschel ENG (1 vol.).
  9. Volume 8, Part B: The Berlin Years: Correspondence 1918, Robert Schulmann, A. J. Kox, Michel Janssen, and József Illy, eds., DEU; translated by Ann M. Hentschel ENG (1 vol.): p. 5/713, deposition in divorce case.
  10. Volume 9: The Berlin Years: Correspondence January 1919-April 1920, Diana Kormos Buchwald, Robert Schulmann, József Illy, Daniel J. Kennefick, & Tilman Sauer, eds., DEU; translated by Ann Hentschel ENG.
  11. Volume 10: The Berlin Years: Correspondence May-December 1920 / Supplementary Correspondence 1909-1920, Diana Kormos Buchwald, Tilman Sauer, Ze'ev Rosenkranz, József Illy, and Virgina Iris Holmes, eds., DEU; translated by Ann Hentschel ENG.
  12. Volume 11: Cumulative Index, Bibliography, List of Correspondence, Chronology, and Errata to Volumes 1-10, A. J. Kox, Tilman Sauer, Diana Kormos Buchwald, Rudy Hirschmann, Osik Moses, Benjamin Aronin, and Jennifer Stolper, comp. vol. 11.
  13. Volume 12: The Berlin Years: Correspondence January-December 1921, Diana Kormos Buchwald, Ze'ev Rosenkranz, Tilman Sauer, József Illy, & Virginia Iris Holmes, eds., DEU; translated by Ann M. Hentschel ENG.
  14. Volume 13: The Berlin Years: Writings & Correspondence January 1922-March 1923, Diana Kormos Buchwald, József Illy, Ze'ev Rosenkranz, & Tilman Sauer, eds., DEU; translated by Ann M. Hentschel & Osik Moses ENG.
  15. Volume 14: The Berlin Years: Writings & Correspondence, April 1923-May 1925, Diana Kormos Buchwald, József Illy, Ze’ev Rosenkranz, Tilman Sauer & Osik Moses, eds., DEU; ENG.
  16. Volume 15: The Berlin Years: Writings & Correspondence, June 1925-May 1927, Diana Kormos Buchwald, József Illy, A. J. Kox, Dennis Lehmkuhl, Ze'ev Rosenkranz & Jennifer Nollar James, eds., DEU; ENG.
• Einstein, Albert. Mein Weltbild [The World As I See It], 25th ed. (Frankfurt: Ullestein Verlag, 1993; orig. published 1932), translation by Eckhart Tolle. Preview online at GoogleBooks.
• Smith, Dinitia. “Dark Side of Einstein Emerges in His Letters.” In: The New York Times, published 6 November 1996. Online at The New York Times.
• Non-immigrant trips to the United States: "California, Los Angeles Passenger Lists, 1907-1948," on FamilySearch (1931) and "California, Los Angeles Passenger Lists, 1907-1948," on FamilySearch (1932).
• "United States World War II Draft Registration Cards, 1942," database with images, (FamilySearch: 7 April 2016), Albert Einstein, 1942; citing NARA microfilm pub#M1936, M1937, M1939, M1951, M1962, M1964, M1986, M2090, &M2097 (Washington D.C.: NARA, n.d.): source for DOB.
• 'Michael Faraday - a Sandemanian and Scientist' by Geoffrey Cantor