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Second Intermediate Period of Egypt

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The Second Intermediate Period
c. 1700 BC–1550 BC
The political situation in the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (c. 1650 – c. 1550 BC)
The political situation in the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt (c. 1650 – c. 1550 BC)
Capital
Religion
Ancient Egyptian religion
DemonymsEgyptians and Hyksos
GovernmentMonarchy
Pharaoh 
• c. 1701 – c. 1677 BC
Merneferre Ay (first)
• c. 1555 – c. 1550 BC
Kamose (last)
History 
• approximately around the late 13th Dynasty
c. 1700 BC
• The end of the 17th Dynasty of Egypt
1550 BC
Preceded by		Succeeded by
Middle Kingdom of Egypt
New Kingdom of Egypt

The Second Intermediate Period marks a period when ancient Egypt was divided into smaller dynasties for a second time, dating from 1782 to 1550 BC,[1]: 123  between the end of the Middle Kingdom and the start of the New Kingdom. There is no universal agreement in Egyptology about how to define the period.[2]

It is best known as the period when the Hyksos people of West Asia established the 15th Dynasty and ruled from Avaris, which, according to Manetho's Aegyptiaca, was founded by a king by the name of Salitis.[3] The settling of these people may have occurred peacefully, although Manetho presents the Hyksos as “invaders of an obscure race” who conquered Egypt with brutality.[4]

The Turin King List from the time of Ramesses II remains the primary source for understanding the chronology and political history of the Second Intermediate Period, along with studying the typology of scarabs, beetle-shaped amulets mass-produced in ancient Egypt and often inscribed with the names of rulers.[5]

History

[edit]

Collapse of the Middle Kingdom

[edit]

The 12th Dynasty of Egypt ended in the late 19th century BC with the death of Queen Sobekneferu.[6] She had no heirs, causing the dynasty to come to an abrupt end, and with it, the most prosperous era of the Middle Kingdom; it was succeeded by the much weaker 13th Dynasty. According to the Byzantine chronicler George Syncellus, all three sources of the translated king list of Africanus, Eusebius, and the Armenian of Eusebius state that the 13th Dynasty had sixty kings that ruled and lived in Dioplus for roughly 453 years.[7] Retaining the seat of the 12th Dynasty, the 13th Dynasty (c. 1773 – 1650 BC) ruled from Itjtawy ("Seizer-of-the-Two-Lands") for most of its existence.

The pyramid of Khendjer is the only pyramid known to have been completed during the 13th Dynasty
Upper part of a statue of pharaoh Khendjer from his pyramid complex

Migration to Thebes

[edit]

The 13th Dynasty switched to Thebes in the far south possibly in the reign of Merneferre Ay.[1]: 123  Daphna Ben Tor believes that this event was triggered by the invasion of the eastern Delta and the Memphite region by Canaanite rulers, who had their own culture, a variant of the contemporary late Palestinian Middle Bronze Age culture of the southern Levant.[8] For some authors, this marks the end of the Middle Kingdom and the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period.[9] This analysis is rejected by Ryholt and Baker however, who note that the stele of Seheqenre Sankhptahi, reigning toward the end of the dynasty, strongly suggests that he reigned over Memphis.[10]

Though the 13th Dynasty may have controlled Upper Egypt, the 14th Dynasty ruled Lower Egypt, and both houses agreed to co-exist allowing trade. Evidently the rulers had trouble with securing power within their territory, being replaced in rapid fashion, but other factors like famine may have played a part. The eventual collapse of the 13th Dynasty became an opening for two smaller dynasties to take control of Egypt.[11]

Transitional period

[edit]

After allowing discipline at the southern forts to deteriorate, the government of the 13th Dynasty eventually withdrew its garrisons and, not long afterward, the forts were reoccupied by the rising Nubian state of Kush. An independent line of kings created the 14th Dynasty in the western Delta. In the north, Lower Egypt was overrun by the Hyksos, a Semitic people from across the Sinai.[12] According to Manetho, invaders from the east seized Egypt "without striking a blow; and having overpowered the rulers of the land, they then burned our cities ruthlessly, razing to the ground the temples of gods..."[13]

Similar to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt, the Second Intermediate Period was dynamic time in which rule of Egypt was roughly divided between rival power bases in Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, each controlling a portion of land.[14]

Fourteenth Dynasty

[edit]

The 13th Dynasty proved unable to hold on to the entire territory of Egypt, and a provincial ruling family, located in the Nile Delta, broke away from the central authority to form the 14th Dynasty (c. 1700–1650 BC). According to Syncellus, all three sources agree that the 14th Dynasty had seventy-six kings and their court was located in Xois, now modern day Sakha.[7] The precise borders of the 14th Dynasty state are not known, due to the general scarcity of its monuments. In his study of the Second Intermediate Period, Kim Ryholt concludes that the territory directly controlled by the 14th Dynasty roughly consisted of the Nile Delta, with borders located near Athribis in the western Delta and Bubastis in the east.[15] Most modern Egyptologists share the view that Avaris – rather than Xois – was the 14th Dynasty's seat of power.[16]

Contested rulers proposed by Ryholt as the first five rulers of the dynasty are commonly identified as being of Canaanite (Semitic) descent based on their names.[17] His conclusions about their chronological position within the period are contested in Ben Tor's study.[18] Other sources don't refer to the dynasty as foreign or Hyksos and they were not referred to as "rulers of foreign lands" or "shepherd kings" in kings lists.[19][20][21][22] The most attested, non-contested ruler of the dynasty, Nehesy Aasehre, left his name on two monuments at Avaris. His name means "the Nubian". According to Ryholt, he was the son and direct successor of the pharaoh Sheshi with a Nubian Queen named Tati.[23]

The contested[24] rulers (with the translation of their nomens)[25] are:

Fifteenth Dynasty

[edit]

The kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty are said to have been either Canaanite or Amorite.[26][27] 17th Dynasty Pharaoh Kamose is known to have referred to Apophis, one of the kings of the 15th dynasty, as ruler of Retjenu (Syria-Palestine).[28][29] The kings formed "the second Asiatic Kingdom in the Delta" and ruled Lower Egypt from Avaris for a hundred years.[30] In Manethonian tradition, Salitis, described as a Hyksos (ḥḳꜣw-ḫꜣswt, a "shepherd" according to Africanus), is believed to have conquered the entirety of Egypt, but it is more likely that his rule did not extend beyond Lower Egypt.[31][32] It is believed that Avaris in the Delta was the largest city in the world from 1670 to 1557 BC under the Hyksos,[33] however the kingdom being based in Avaris is now viewed as a secessionist move rather than expansionist.[34] It is still debated if the movement of the Hyksos was a military invasion or a mass migration of Asiatics from Palestine.[1]: 127–128 

The Turin King list indicates that there were six Hyksos kings,[35] with an obscure Khamudi listed as the final king of the 15th Dynasty:

15th Dynasty Kings
Name Image Dates and comments
Salitis Unattested Mentioned by Manetho as first king of the dynasty; currently unidentified with any known archaeologically attested person. Ruled for 19 years according to Manetho, as quoted by Josephus.
Semqen Mentioned on the Turin king list. According to Ryholt, he was an early Hyksos ruler, possibly the first king of the dynasty; von Beckerath assigns him to the 16th dynasty.[36]
Aperanat Mentioned on the Turin king list. According to Ryholt, he was an early Hyksos ruler, possibly the second king of the dynasty; von Beckerath assigns him to the 16th dynasty.[36]
Khyan Ruled 10+ years.[37]
Yanassi
Khyan's eldest son, possibly at the origin of the mention of a king Iannas in Manetho's Aegyptiaca
Sakir-Har Named as an Hyksos king on a doorjamb found at Avaris. Regnal order uncertain.
Apophis c. 1590?–1550 BC

Ruled 40+ years.[37]

Khamudi c. 1550–1540 BC

Abydos Dynasty

[edit]
Stele of Wepwawetemsaf, a king attributed to the Abydos Dynasty

The Abydos Dynasty (c. 1640 to 1620 BC) may have been a short-lived local dynasty ruling over part of Upper Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period in Ancient Egypt and was contemporary with the 15th and 16th dynasties. The Abydos Dynasty stayed rather small with rulership over just Abydos or Thinis.[38] The dynasty tentatively includes four rulers: Wepwawetemsaf, Pantjeny, Snaaib, and Senebkay.[38] The Abydos Dynasty ceased when the Hyksos expanded into Upper Egypt. A possible graffito of Wepwawetemsaf was discovered by Karl Richard Lepsius in the tomb BH2 of the 12th Dynasty nomarch Amenemhat at Beni Hasan, about 250 km North of Abydos, in Middle Egypt. If the attribution of this graffito is correct and if Wepwawetemsaf did belong to the Abydos Dynasty, then its territory might have extended that far north.[39] Since the dynasty was contemporaneous with the 16th Dynasty, the territory under Abydene control could not have extended farther than Hu, 50 km south of Abydos.[40]

Sixteenth Dynasty

[edit]

The 16th Dynasty (c. 1650-1580 BC) ruled the Theban region in Upper Egypt. Of the two chief versions of Manetho's Aegyptiaca, the 16th Dynasty is described by the more reliable Africanus (supported by Syncellus) as "shepherd [Hyksos] kings", but by Eusebius as Theban.[7] In his 1997 study of the SIP, the Danish Egyptologist Kim Ryholt argues that the 16th Dynasty was an independent Theban kingdom. From Ryholt's reconstruction of the Turin canon, 15 kings can be associated to the dynasty, several of whom are attested by contemporary sources.[41] While most likely rulers based in Thebes itself, some may have been local rulers from other important Upper Egyptian towns, including Abydos, El Kab and Edfu. By the reign of Nebiriau I, the realm controlled by the 16th Dynasty extended at least as far north as Hu and south to Edfu.[42]

Ryholt gives the list of kings of the 16th Dynasty as shown in the table below.[43] Others, such as Helck, Vandersleyen, Bennett combine some of these rulers with the Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt.[44] The list of rulers is given here as per Kim Ryholt and is supposedly in chronological order:

16th Dynasty Kings
Name of king Image Dates Comments
Unknown
1649–1648 BC
 Name lost in a lacuna of the Turin canon
1648–1645 BC
1645–1629 BC
1629–1628 BC
1628–1627 BC
1627–1601 BC
1601 BC
1601–1600 BC
1600–1588 BC
1588 BC
Unknown
1588–1582 BC
 Five kings lost in a lacuna of the Turin canon

The continuing war against the 15th Dynasty dominated the short-lived 16th Dynasty. The armies of the 15th Dynasty continually encroached on 16th Dynasty territory, eventually conquering Thebes itself. Famine, which had plagued Upper Egypt during the late 13th Dynasty and the 14th Dynasty, also blighted the 16th Dynasty, most evidently during and after the reign of Neferhotep III.[45] Sometime around 1580 BC, the 16th Dynasty was subsumed after conflict between Thebes and Avaris.[46]

Seventeenth Dynasty

[edit]

The 17th Dynasty (c.1571-1540 BC) was established by the Thebans quickly after the fall of the 16th. The borders between the Hyksos and the Egyptians seem to have alternated between Beni Hasan and Asyut.[47] The founder of the dynasty was Rahotep and scholars consider his dynasty to have been native to Egypt.[48] 17th Dynasty kings constructed a palatial complex at Deir el-Ballas, which is thought to have played an important role during the rule, but was later abandoned in the New Kingdom.[49] Five kings are recorded on the Karnak King List, dated to the reign of Thutmose III. Three kings are also listed in the kings scene of TT2, dated to the reign of Ramesses II. More names may have originally appeared in the missing sections of the kings lists.

17th Dynasty Kings[50]
Nomen (personal name) Prenomen (throne name) Horus-name Image Reign Burial Consort(s) Comments
Rahotep Sekhemre-wahkhaw Wahankh c. 1585 BC Dra' Abu el-Naga'?
Sobekemsaf I Sekhemre-wadjkhaw Hetepnetjeru 7 years Dra' Abu el-Naga'? Nubemhat
Sobekemsaf II Sekhemre-shedtawy (unknown) Statuette Sobekemsaf Petrie b Dra' Abu el-Naga'? Tomb was robbed during the reign of Ramesses IX Nubkhaes
Intef V Sekhemre-wepmaat Wepmaat Louvre 122006 050 2-3? years Dra' Abu el-Naga'?
Intef VI Nubkheperre Neferkheperu 3-8? years Dra' Abu el-Naga' Sobekemsaf
Intef VII Sekhemre-heruhermaat (unknown) Dra' Abu el-Naga'? Haankhes
Ahmose the Elder Senakhtenre Merymaat Relief Senakhtenre by Khruner 1-2 years Dra' Abu el-Naga'? Tetisheri
Tao Seqenenre Khaemwaset c. 1560 (4 years) Dra' Abu el-Naga'? Ahmose Inhapy

Sitdjehuti Ahhotep I

 Died in battle against the Hyksos
Kamose Wadjkheperre Khahernesetef Sarcophage-Kamose 1555 to 1550 BC (5 years) Dra' Abu el-Naga' Ahhotep II?

The last two kings of the dynasty opposed the Hyksos rule over Egypt. The 17th Dynasty would see four different ruling families whose last king did not have a male heir to the throne. Subsequently, other powerful families established kings having short reigns. The 17th Dynasty maintained a short-lived peace with the 15th Dynasty, which ended with the start of the reign of Seqenenre (c. 1549-1545 BC), who started a series of wars against the Hyksos and perished in battle.[51] King Kamose (c. 1545-1540 BC) continued the war against the Hyksos as a whole,[52] but his brother Ahmose I would be the king to deal the final blow; he thus became the first king of the New Kingdom 18th Dynasty.

Reunification

[edit]

At the end of the Second Intermediate period, the 18th Dynasty came to power in Egypt. The first king of the 18th Dynasty, Ahmose, completed the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt and consolidated his rule over the land, unifying Upper and Lower Egypt. With that, Ahmose ushered in a new period of prosperity, the New Kingdom.[53]

Pharaoh Ahmose I (ruled c. 1549–1524 BC) slaying a probable Hyksos. Detail of a ceremonial axe in the name of Ahmose I, treasure of Queen Ahhotep II. Inscription "Ahmose, beloved of (the War God) Montu". Luxor Museum

Art and culture

[edit]

Society

[edit]

In the Late Middle Kingdom, Tell el-Dab'a became a major harbour for ships and a trading post with connections across the Mediterranean.[54] It became increasingly populated by natives of the Levant, evidenced by changes in ceramics, burial customs, and architecture.[55] Egyptian ethnonyms for Levantines include ꜥꜣmw (‘Asiatics’), Jwntj.w (‘those with bows’), k3tj.w (‘those of the turquoise mining region on the Sinai’), Mnṯw.w (‘furious ones(?)'), and Sṯtj.w (‘those from the land of Setjet’), though this doesn't reflect their own identity.[56][57] The exact origin of this Levantine population is debated; it is surmised they are a result of either seaborne immigration from the northern Levant or immigration from the southern Levant across the Sinai.[58] The settling of Levantine populations in Egypt may have occurred peacefully in the wake of the disintegration of the 14th Dynasty.[59] Archaeological evidence from both regions denote a rapid decline in trade contacts between Egypt and the northern Levant (Byblos), coinciding with the beginning of substantial trade contacts between Egypt and Palestine (southern Levant), sometime in the early 17th century BC. A number of seals found in Palestine attesting to Egyptian pharaohs are completely absent in the northern Levant.[60] Support for the southern Levant shift is evidenced by 2020 analysis on Canaanite pottery from Tell el-Dab‘a.[61]

A number of advances were introduced into Egypt during the period and thus adapted into the culture of the early New Kingdom, notably the use of horse and chariot and the wielding of the composite bow and the khopesh (sickle sword) in combat.[62] Avaris being credited for the introduction of the horse and chariot is contested, as it is possible it was introduced by the Libyans instead.[63]

Art

[edit]

The arts of the first half of the 13th Dynasty is part of the Middle Kingdom (about 2025-1700 BC). The culture of the latter half of the 13th Dynasty in Upper Egypt exibits a sharp downward trend, with loss of standard and style notably in orthography when inscribing hieroglyphs. Royal monuments no longer attain a certain level of artistry after the mid-13th Dynasty. Whilst the monuments commissioned by the king remain a relatively high level, the arts of the Second Intermediate Period generally do not reach this level in non-commisioned work again until the New Kingdom.[64]

Early Hyksos rulers reverted to a style of scarab craftmanship common in the 12th Dynasty, though it corrupted soon after this initial ideal with scarabs becoming more degraded than the preceding 14th Dynasty.[65] Archaeological evidence in Egypt indicates large-scale importation of Canaanite scarabs during the Second Intermediate Period. The proliferation of Anra scarabs in Egypt and Nubia was bolstered by the Palestinian market in the Levant, with anra scarabs most frequently found in Palestine (over 80%).[66]: 277 

Art of the Second Intermediate Period (1782 to 1550 BC)
Asiatic (Hyksos) official, with the distinctive "mushroom headed" hairstyle
Late 15th Dynasty glazed steatite scarab with a solar/lunar deity (?) protected by two animal headed figures
Small jar with handle
Blue glazed faience Hippopotamus figurine, excavated in Thebes, Egypt

Religion

[edit]
An offering table dedicated to the god Seth by King Apepi of the 15th Dynasty

The Hyksos Rulers (c. 1550 BC), of foreign origin, adopted Egyptian conventions including the assumption of royal titles and prenomens according to custom, hieroglyphic inscriptions, and worship of the Egyptian pantheon.[67] They took Set as their patron deity and it later merged with Ba'al of the Asiatic pantheon, becoming the hybrid deity Seth-Baal over time.[68][69] By 200 BC, a tradition developed in the Ptolemaic Kingdom that identified Yahweh with Set.[70] King Apophis is recorded as worshiping Set exclusively, as described in this 19th Dynasty passage:[71]

King Apophis chose for his Lord the god Seth. He did not worship any other deity in the whole land except Seth.

— "The Quarrel of Apophis and Seqenenre", Papyrus Sallier I, 1.2–3 (British Museum No. 10185)

Genetic impact

[edit]

Genetic data from mummies of the Third Intermediate Period (787-544 BC), published in 2017 and again analysed in 2025,[72] showed marginal continuity from the Nuwayrat Old Kingdom individual (NUE001) sample, complemented by a significant Levantine ancestry influx. The main ancestry source of the Third Intermediate Period mummies was Bronze Age Levant ancestry, appearing at around 64% in the main model. This phenomenon could have originated in the proposed Bronze Age Canaanite expansion of the end of the Middle Kingdom and the advent of the Second Intermediate Period of Egypt.[73]

A strontium isotope analysis dismissed the Hyksos invasion model in favour of a migration one. Contrary to the model of a foreign invasion, the study didn't find more males moving into the region, but instead found a sex bias towards females, with a high proportion (77%) being non-locals.[74][75]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. 1 2 3 Van de Mieroop, Marc (2021). A history of ancient Egypt. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-119-62087-7. OCLC 1200833162.
  2. ↑ "Second Intermediate Period". www.ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 2026-07-03.
  3. ↑ Edwards, I. E. S.; Gadd, C. J.; Hammond, N. G. L. (1970-12-02). The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-521-07051-5.
  4. ↑ "The Hyksos". ARCE. Retrieved 2026-07-03.
  5. ↑ Ben-Tor, Daphna (2007). Scarabs, Chronology, and Interconnections: Egypt and Palestine in the Second Intermediate Period. Saint-Paul. p. 3. ISBN 978-3-7278-1593-5.
  6. ↑ Kim S. B. Ryholt, The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period, c. 1800–1550 B.C., Museum Tusculanum Press, Carsten Niebuhr Institute Publications 20. 1997, p.185
  7. 1 2 3 "LacusCurtius • Manetho's History of Egypt — Book II".
  8. ↑ "Second Intermediate Period". www.ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 2023-12-31.
  9. ↑ Daphna Ben Tor: Sequences and chronology of Second Intermediate Period royal-name scarabs, based on excavated series from Egypt and the Levant, in: The Second Intermediate Period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties), Current Research, Future Prospects edited by Marcel Maree, Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta, 192, 2010, p. 91
  10. ↑ K. S. B. Ryholt, 1997. Page 69
  11. ↑ K. S. B. Ryholt, 1997. Page 301
  12. ↑ Aidan Dodson, Dyan Hilton: The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. The American University in Cairo Press, London 2004. pp. 100–101
  13. ↑ Marincola, John (2010-12-09). A Companion to Greek and Roman Historiography. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 3, Manetho of Sebennytus. ISBN 978-1-4443-9382-8.
  14. ↑ Quirke, Stephen (2014-12-10). Exploring Religion in Ancient Egypt. John Wiley & Sons. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-4443-3199-8.
  15. ↑ K. S. B. Ryholt, 1997. Page 77
  16. ↑ Scott, Graham P. (2026-01-01). Seeds of Western Culture: Universal Chronology, the Exoduses and Archilochus' Odyssey - Fourth Edition. Graham P Scott. p. 245.
  17. ↑ K. S. B. Ryholt, 1997. Page 5
  18. ↑ Ben-Tor, Daphna; Allen, Susan J.; Allen, James P. (August 1999). "Review: Seals and Kings: The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800-1550 B. C. by K. S. B. Ryholt". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 315: 47–74. doi:10.2307/1357532. JSTOR 1357532. S2CID 155317877.
  19. ↑ Grimal, Nicolas (1994). A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell (July 19, 1994). pp. 182–197.
  20. ↑ "Hyksos". Britannica. July 2024.
  21. ↑ Shaw, Ian (2004). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press. pp. 172–206.
  22. ↑ Ilin-Tomich, Alexander (2016). "Second Intermediate Period". UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology: 1–21.
  23. ↑ K. S. B. Ryholt, 1997. Page 101
  24. ↑ T. Schneider 1998 (sic), 126-127
  25. ↑ Leprohon, Ronald J. (2013-04-30). The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary. Society of Biblical Lit. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-58983-736-2.
  26. ↑ K. S. B. Ryholt, 1997. Page 5
  27. ↑ Saretta, Phyllis (2017-05-18). Asiatics in Middle Kingdom Egypt: Perceptions and Reality. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-78093-215-6.
  28. ↑ Kuhrt, Amélie (1995). The Ancient Near East, C. 3000-330 BC. Psychology Press. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-415-16763-5.
  29. ↑ Barton, George A. (2019-09-25). Archaeology and the Bible. BoD – Books on Demand. p. 103. ISBN 978-3-7340-9320-3.
  30. ↑ Shaw, Ian (2003). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. OUP Oxford. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-19-280458-7.
  31. ↑ K. S. B. Ryholt, 1997. Page 5
  32. ↑ Museum, Nicholson (1948). Handbook to the Nicholson Museum. University of Sydney. p. 56.
  33. ↑ "Tell-el-Daba - History".
  34. ↑ K. S. B. Ryholt, 1997. Page 302-304
  35. ↑ Barnes, Riccardo. "Table 5 - from THE TURIN KING LIST -IS IT REALLY STRAIGHT". Academia.edu. Retrieved 2026-06-30.
  36. 1 2 Jürgen von Beckerath: Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen, Münchner ägyptologische Studien, Heft 49, Mainz : P. von Zabern, 1999, ISBN 3-8053-2591-6, available online Archived 2015-12-22 at the Wayback Machine see p. 120–121.
  37. 1 2 Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8.
  38. 1 2 K. S. B. Ryholt, 1997. Page 163
  39. ↑ Ryholt, K.S.B. (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 164. ISBN 8772894210.
  40. ↑ K. S. B. Ryholt, 1997. Page 164
  41. ↑ K. S. B. Ryholt, 1997. Page 305
  42. ↑ Darrell D. Baker: The Encyclopedia of the Pharaohs: Volume I - Predynastic to the Twentieth Dynasty 3300–1069 BC, Stacey International, ISBN 978-1-905299-37-9, 2008, pp. 256-257
  43. ↑ "Kings of the 2nd Intermediate Period". www.ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 2026-06-27.
  44. ↑ Chris Bennet, A Genealogical Chronology of the Seventeenth Dynasty, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, Vol. 39 (2002), pp. 123-155
  45. ↑ K. S. B. Ryholt, 1997. Page 306
  46. ↑ Wegner, Josef; Cahail, Kevin (2021-08-20). King Seneb-Kay's Tomb and the Necropolis of a Lost Dynasty at Abydos. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 339. ISBN 978-1-949057-09-6.
  47. ↑ Wegner, Josef; Cahail, Kevin (2021-08-20). King Seneb-Kay's Tomb and the Necropolis of a Lost Dynasty at Abydos. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 364. ISBN 978-1-949057-10-2.
  48. ↑ "In between the Hyksos kingdom, in the Delta and Middle Egypt, and the Kingdom of Kush, south of the 1st cataract, was squeezed the only “true” Egyptian dynasty, the 17th in Thebes."Van de Mieroop, Marc (2021). A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 136.
  49. ↑ Admin (2017-01-02). "Deir el-Ballas". The Ancient Egypt Heritage and Archeology Fund. Retrieved 2026-06-27.
  50. ↑ K. S. B. Ryholt, Adam Bülow-Jacobse, The political situation in Egypt during the second intermediate period, c. 1800-1550 B.C., pp 168, 170, 171, 179, 204, 400
  51. ↑ Tyldesley, Joyce A. (2001). The Private Lives of the Pharaohs. TV Books. p. 129. ISBN 978-1-57500-154-8.
  52. ↑ Mieroop, Marc Van De (2021-02-02). A History of Ancient Egypt. John Wiley & Sons. p. 137. ISBN 978-1-119-62087-7.
  53. ↑ Bunson, Margaret (2014-05-14). Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Infobase Publishing. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-4381-0997-8.
  54. ↑ Forstner-Müller 2014: 33
  55. ↑ Bietak, Manfred; Prell, Silvia (2021). The Enigma of the Hyksos. Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 244. ISBN 978-3-447-11737-1.
  56. ↑ Gundacker 2017, 349-353
  57. ↑ Matić, Uroš (2024). "Ethnicity of the Hyksos Forces and the Death of Pharaoh Seqenenre Tao". Етноантрополошки проблеми. 19 (3): 821–849. ISSN 0353-1589.
  58. ↑ Ben-Tor 2007: 189-190
  59. ↑ K. S. B. Ryholt, 1997. Page 131-132
  60. ↑ Bietak, Manfred; Prell, Silvia (2021). The Enigma of the Hyksos. Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 247–248. ISBN 978-3-447-11737-1.
  61. ↑ McGovern and Wnuk, The Foreign Relations of the “Hyksos.” A Neutron Activation Study of Middle Bronze Age Pottery from the Eastern Mediterranean, 2020
  62. ↑ Engberg, Robert Martin (1939). The Hyksos Reconsidered. University of Chicago Press. p. 30.
  63. ↑ Ridgeway, William. The Origin and Influence of the Thoroughbred Horse. CUP Archive. p. 237.
  64. ↑ "Art in the Second Intermediate Period". www.ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 2026-05-04.
  65. ↑ Petrie, W. M. Flinders (2023-04-20). Scarabs and Cylinders (with Names). Oxbow Books. p. 15. ISBN 979-8-88857-003-6.
  66. ↑ Richards, Fiona V. (1998). The Anra scarab: an archaeological and historical approach. p. 11-298. doi:10.30861/9781841712178. hdl:1842/26878. ISBN 9781841712178. S2CID 127185087. Eighty percent of all Anra scarabs were found in Palestine, it would appear that this scarab was marketed specifically by the 15th dynasty for the Palestinian market
  67. ↑ "The Hyksos". ARCE. Retrieved 2026-05-07.
  68. ↑ Keel, Othmar; Uehlinger, Christoph (1998-01-01). Gods, Goddesses, And Images of God. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-567-08591-7.
  69. ↑ Hays, Christopher B. (2025-05-27). Wenamun’s Prophetic Mission: Theocratic Rhetoric in Egypt and the Hebrew Bible. Penn State Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-64602-322-6.
  70. ↑ Assmann, Jan (2018-03-27). The Invention of Religion: Faith and Covenant in the Book of Exodus. Princeton University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-691-15708-5.
  71. ↑ Ebers, Georg (1881). The Historical Romances of Georg Ebers ... D. Appleton. p. 276.
  72. ↑ Schuenemann, Verena J.; Peltzer, Alexander; Welte, Beatrix; van Pelt, W. Paul; Molak, Martyna; Wang, Chuan-Chao; Furtwängler, Anja; Urban, Christian; Reiter, Ella; Nieselt, Kay; Teßmann, Barbara; Francken, Michael; Harvati, Katerina; Haak, Wolfgang; Schiffels, Stephan; Krause, Johannes (30 May 2017). "Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods". Nature Communications. 8 (1) 15694. doi:10.1038/ncomms15694. ISSN 2041-1723.
  73. ↑ Morez Jacobs et al. 2025, p. 6.
  74. ↑ Stantis, Chris; Kharobi, Arwa; Maaranen, Nina; Macpherson, Colin; Bietak, Manfred; Prell, Silvia; Schutkowski, Holger (2021-06-01). "Multi-isotopic study of diet and mobility in the northeastern Nile Delta". Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. 13 (6): 105. Bibcode:2021ArAnS..13..105S. doi:10.1007/s12520-021-01344-x. ISSN 1866-9565. S2CID 235271929.
  75. ↑ Stantis, Chris; Kharobi, Arwa; Maaranen, Nina; Nowell, Geoff M.; Bietak, Manfred; Prell, Silvia; Schutkowski, Holger (2020-07-15). "Who were the Hyksos? Challenging traditional narratives using strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analysis of human remains from ancient Egypt". PLOS ONE. 15 (7) e0235414. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1535414S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0235414. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7363063. PMID 32667937.

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