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Sukaphaa

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Sukaphaa
Chaolung
Fictional representation of Sukapha by Pushpa Gogoi[1]
Ahom King
ReignTraditionally dated to 1228–1268[2]
PredecessorPost established
SuccessorSuteuphaa
BornTraditionally c. 1189
Möng Mao
DiedTraditionally 1268 (aged 78–79) (traditional)
Charaideo, Ahom kingdom (present day India)
Burial
Sukaphaa Maidam, Charaideo
Spouse
  • Ai-Me-Chao-Lo
  • Nang-Sheng-Chum-Hpa
  • Yi-Lo-Weng-Ching-Chum-Hpa
IssueSuteuphaa
Names
Chaolung Sukaphaa
HouseSu/Tsu (Tiger) clan
DynastyAhom dynasty
FatherChao Chang-Nyeu
MotherBlak Kham Sen
ReligionAhom religion

Sukaphaa, also Siu-Ka-Pha,[3] was a Tai ruler traditionally credited with founding the Ahom kingdom in medieval Assam. He is identified as a Tai prince from Möng Mao,[4] and conventional chronologies date his entry into the Brahmaputra valley to 1228 CE[5]. The chronology of his migration, reign and early settlement, however, is disputed: Buranji accounts preserve conflicting dates, while later reconstructions have proposed alternative periods.[6][7] The kingdom associated with his foundation existed until 1826 and came to incorporate large parts of modern Assam. In reverence to his position in Assam's history, the honorific Chaolung is associated with his name (Chao: lord; Lung: great). In 1996, the Assam Government decreed his annual remembrance on 2 December as Sukaphaa Divas, or Asom Divas (Assam Day), to commemorate his advent and entry into Assam.

Su-Ka-Pha Sammanay Khetra statue, Assam

Traditional genealogy

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The details of Sukaphaa's ancestry and early life, available from different chronicles, both Ahom and non-Ahom, are full of contradictions. According to Phukan (1992), who has tried to hold up a consistent account, Sukaphaa was born to Chao Chang-Nyeu (alias Phu-Chang-Khang) and Nang-Mong Blak-Kham-Sen in the Tai state of Möng Mao (also called Mao-Lung, with the capital at Kieng Sen), close to present-day Ruili in Yunnan, China.[8] Chao Chang Nyeu was a prince from Mong-Ri Mong-Ram, who had travelled to Mong Mao possibly on an expedition.[9] Mong Mao was then ruled by Chao Tai Pung. Chao Chang Nyeu was later befriended by Pao Meo Pung, the son of the ruler, who gave his sister Blak Kham Sen in marriage. As per this account, Sukaphaa was born of this union not later than 1189 CE and was brought up by his maternal grandparents.[10] The same account states that Pao Meo Pung, who eventually ruled Mong Mao, had no male heir and Sukaphaa, his nephew, was nominated to succeed him. A son born late to Pao Meo Pung's queen ended Sukaphaa's claim to the throne of Mong Mao.

Journey into Assam

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The following route and dates belong to the conventional Buranji-based reconstruction. In this account, Sukaphaa left Mong Mao in 1215.[11] He was accompanied by three queens, two sons and a daughter; chiefs from five other dependent Mongs;[12] members of the priestly class and soldiers—a total contingent of 9,000. Some commoners are recorded as having joined this core group on the way. Sukaphaa had with him 300 horses fitted with saddles and bridles and two elephants. Heavy arms were transported along a different route.[13] Sukaphaa followed an older known route from Yunnan to Assam that passed through Myitkyina, Mogaung and the upper Irrawaddy River valley. On his way he stopped at various places and crossed the Khamjang River to reach the Nangyang lake in 1227. Here he subjugated the Nagas very ferociously and established a Mong. He left one Kan-Khrang-Mong there to guard the passage back, and proceeded to cross the Patkai hills at the Pangsau pass and reached Namrup (in the Brahmaputra Valley) in December 1228. In this reconstruction, the journey from Mong Mao to Namrup took about thirteen years, and 1228 is treated as the year in which the Ahom kingdom was established.

Disputed chronology of Migration

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The conventional chronology places Sukaphaa's departure from Möng Mao in 1215 and his arrival at Khamjang in 1228.[14] The chronological basis of these dates, however, is disputed.[15][16] Daniels (2012) notes that, although the Ahoms are reputed to have migrated to Assam during the thirteenth century, “we have no contemporary source that can elucidate their early history.”[17] The textual basis of the early migration narrative is also uncertain. Although Buranji tradition attributes the beginning of official chronicle writing to Sukaphaa[18], research on the Tai Ahom script suggests that the written chronicle tradition took shape much later. The oldest surviving Ahom text, the Snake Pillar inscription, dates to the reign of Suhungmung (1497–1539), while modern-day linguistics studies show that the Ahom script developed between the late 14th and 16th centuries.[19][20]

Saikia (1997) describes an “utter confusion” in the chronology of the presumed Tai-Ahom migration and settlement in the Lauhitya valley. The first two chronicles of the Satsari Assam Buranji give incompatible sequences: the first places the westward migration in 1215 and the initial settlement in 1228, while the second dates the departure to Śaka 1170 (1248 CE), the establishment of the first village fourteen years later in 1262, and Sukaphaa's death to Śaka 1190 (1268 CE). The first also assigns him a reign of thirty-three years after the occupation of Dikhoumukh, whereas the second makes him leader of the group for forty-two years from its departure from the Nara kingdom.[21] Three other Buranjis date Sukaphaa’s accession to 1362 CE, while other accounts preserve still different chronologies.[a]

Saikia attributes part of the problem to the Tai-Ahom dating system, which used a recurring sixty-year tao singa cycle composed of named lakni years. Since the Buranjis generally do not identify the particular cycle to which a lakni belonged, she regards their conversion into fixed Common Era dates as uncertain.[26] She further argues that the lakni dates inserted into the first Satsari chronicle—the version supporting 1228—were sometimes incorrectly placed or apparently invented without reference to the Tai-Ahom calendar and therefore cannot be relied upon for reconstructing the early chronology.[27]

Saikia (2004) links the chronological problem to the late compilation and transmission of the Sukaphaa traditions. She states that the Ahom royal genealogy beginning with Sukaphaa was fixed during the reign of Rajeswar Singha (1751–1769), while Gaurinath Singha (1780–1795) later sent pandits to Upper Burma to collate accounts of earlier rulers from Buddhist temple records, particularly those concerning Sukaphaa. This may explain the common origin narrative repeated in later Buranjis, although it is no longer possible to determine whether they drew upon one source or several.[28] Sukaphaa, or related figures, also appears in the ancestral traditions of several Shan groups in Upper Burma with differing dates, genealogies and political roles, but neither the origin of these traditions nor the direction of their transmission can now be established.[29] John F. Hartmann similarly considered the chronology beginning with the first Tai-Ahom ruler “probably too early by as much as 200 years” and noted that the official accounts of the early period were later “refreshed” with Tai-Mau and Khamti chronicles obtained through continued contact with those groups.[30]

Saikia notes that scholars such as N. N. Acharyya fixed 1228 as the beginning of Tai-Ahom rule partly through astronomical reconstruction based on an eclipse recorded during Susenpha's reign.[26] Acharyya identified it with the partial solar eclipse of 6 March 1486 and, by working backwards through the royal succession using an assumed average reign of 21 years for each preceding ruler, concluded that the conventional early-thirteenth-century chronology was broadly plausible.[b] R. C. Kapoor subsequently argued that the 1486 eclipse was not visible from Assam and that the chronicle description better fits the total solar eclipse of 9 July 1488, which was visible there.[32]

Drawing on Dehong Tai chronicles and 13th- and 14th-century Chinese sources, historian Christian Daniels (2023) has proposed a different reconstruction. He argues that the Möng Mao polity associated with Sukaphaa's departure did not emerge until the fourteenth century and that its ruler Sa' Khaan Faa appears in Chinese sources only in the 1340s. Daniels therefore proposes two possibilities: either the traditional 1215 migration began from another Tai polity in southwest Yunnan or the upper Ayeyarwady rather than from Möng Mao, or the conversion of the Buranji's cyclical dates requires revision. Under the latter interpretation, he identifies 1312/13, 1324/25, 1336/37 and 1348/49 as possible equivalents for the relevant “boar year”, and considers 1336/37 and 1348/49 the most likely dates for the foundation of the Ahom polity in Assam. Daniels further notes that a foundation in 1228/29 would be unusually early in the wider history of Tai state formation, preceding the establishment of Sukhothai by about a decade despite Assam's considerable distance from the principal centres of Tai settlement in mainland Southeast Asia. By contrast, a 14th-century chronology would place the emergence of the Ahom polity within the broader historical rise of Möng Mao.[33] Related Buranji traditions place Sukaphaa's westward movement in the aftermath of an earlier Nara–Möng Mao invasion of the region[c][d][e], although these accounts do not provide a securely convertible date.

Sukaphaa in Assam

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Scholars characterise Sukaphaa as the leader of an agricultural community seeking land for permanent settlement rather than as a raiding conqueror. It appears he did not encroach upon the lands of the local peasants; rather, he opened up new areas of settlement, procuring with shrewd diplomacy what he direly needed for the purpose—the service of the local inhabitants.[40] The establishment of these settlements, however, involved both negotiation and coercion. Guha describes the migrating group as a “self-governed body of armed peasants” which, while moving through the region, left small colonies at strategic places such as Khamjang and Tipam before settling in the Dikhou valley.[41]

According to Baruah, Sukaphaa used conciliation to win over sections of the Moran and Barahi populations, but those who resisted were “ruthlessly killed”.[42][f] Buranji-based reconstructions also portray his movement as strategically selective: after learning of a large population concentration on the Namdang, he chose not to attempt its subjugation at that time.[44] His early polity thus developed through settlement, alliance, incorporation of local groups and selective military force, rather than through either purely peaceful migration or indiscriminate conquest.

Establishment of Ahom Kingdom

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The conventional chronology assigns Sukaphaa's successive moves and the establishment of his principal settlement in Upper Assam to the period between 1236 and 1253.[45] According to this reconstruction, Sukaphaa moved from place to place in search of a capital, leaving representatives at earlier settlements. He went up the Burhidihing River and established a province at Lakhen Telsa.[46] Then he came back down the river and established his rule at Tipam. In 1236 he moved to Mungklang (Abhoipur), and in 1240 down the Brahmaputra to Habung. In 1244 he went further down to Ligirigaon (Song-Tak), a few miles from present-day Nazira, and in 1246 to Simaluguri (Tun Nyeu), a place downstream from the present-day Simaluguri.[47] Finally in 1253 he built himself his capital city at Charaideo near present-day Sibsagar town. The capital of the Ahom kingdom changed many times after this, but Charaideo remained the symbolic center of Ahom rule.

Map showing the present course of the Dihing River and an approximate reconstruction of its former course during Sukapha’s migration into Assam, using palaeochannel map published by J. N. Sarma.[g] According to traditional accounts of Sukaphaa’s migration, his route followed the Dihing through settlements such as Tipam, Namrup and Salguri. These places can be seen along the older course of the river.

With the help of local recruits, he established three large farms for sali rice cultivation, called Barakhowakhat, Engerakhat and Gachikalakhat.[48] The conventional chronology dates Sukaphaa's death to 1268. At the time of his death, his kingdom was bounded by the Brahmaputra River in the west, the Disang River in the north, the Dikhow River (26°58′15″N 94°38′12″E / 26.970732°N 94.636745°E / 26.970732; 94.636745) in the south and the Naga Hills in the east.[47]

Even though Sukaphaa treated the people of the Patkai hills very severely on his way to the Brahmaputra valley, his approach to the population in Assam was conciliatory and non-confrontational. He married the daughters of Badaucha, the Moran Chief and Thakumatha, the Barahi chief and established cordial relations with them. As he began establishing his domain, he avoided regions that were heavily populated.[49] He encouraged his soldiers as well as members of the Ahom elite to marry locally. A process of Ahomisation (whereby locals who adopted Ahom methods of wet rice cultivation and statecraft were accepted into the Ahom fold) bolstered the process of integration.[50] The local Borahi and the Moran people, speakers of Tibeto-Burman languages, addressed Sukaphaa's people as "Ha-Cham", that later on developed into "Assam" or "Ahom" (see Etymology of Assam), the name of the kingdom; and "Ahom", the name of the people.

Charaideo Maidams – UNESCO World Heritage Site ,Assam

Memorial

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Su-Ka-Pha Samanway Kshetra, Jorhat, Assam
Su-Ka-Pha Samanway Kshetra, Jorhat, Assam

See also

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Notes

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  1. ↑ Yasmin Saikia (2004), Fragmented memories : struggling to be Tai-Ahom in India. 2004. pp. 242–3.
  2. ↑ Baruah (1986, p. 661)
  3. ↑ "...the advance of the Tais under Sukapha (Siu-Ka-Pha) was a historical fact and is well documented by records and traditions." (Phukan 1992:51)
  4. ↑ "The choice fell on him not only for his qualities as a military leader, but also for his privileged birth in the Chao-pha (noble-celestial) or royal clan from which alone a Tai segmentary society could customarily choose its chief. More precisely, he belonged to the Tiger (Su/Tsu) clan of the Mao-Shan sub-tribe." (Guha 1983:13)
  5. ↑ "...it is not until Sukapha became king in 1228 AD..." (Gait 1906:iv)
  6. ↑ (Saikia 1997:179–181)
  7. ↑ (Daniels 2023)
  8. ↑ (Phukan 1992:67) According to the Buranji by Kashinath Tamuli Phukan, Chao Tai Pung ruled Mong Mao and had two sons, Pao Meo Pung (who finally ruled Mong Mao) and Phu Chang Khang (who finally ruled Mong Mit). Sukaphaa was born to Phu Chang Khang. This version is discounted by Phukan (1992).
  9. ↑ (Gogoi 1968)
  10. ↑ (Gogoi 1968:251)
  11. ↑ Most Buranjis attest to this version. Some Tai chronicles from outside Assam record the journey of Sukaphaa from Mong Mit (and not Mong Mao) in 1227 where he was the ruler (Gogoi 1968:253). According to this version, Sukaphaa's father had earlier divided his Mong among his three sons, and Sukaphaa became the ruler of Mong Mit about 1209. The immediate cause of departure was the aggression of Su-Khan-Pha of Mong Mao.
  12. ↑ Mong-Hkang, Mong-Hkru-Dai, Mong-Hka Mong-Pun, Mong-Phu and Mong-Li (Gogoi 1968:256–257).
  13. ↑ (Phukan 1992:51)
  14. ↑ "Sukāphā is said to have left Maulung in 1215 A.D. ... For thirteen years he wandered about the hilly country of the Pātkāi ... and in 1228 A.D. he arrived in Khāmjāng."(Gait 1906:77)
  15. ↑ "Like his ancestry, his original homeland, and the reason of his leaving it, Sukapha's date of birth and the date of his invasion of Assam are also bones of contention to the scholars in the field. [...] There being no means to confirm these early dates of the Buranjis, no scientific and comprehensive study has been made on the topic."(Acharyya 1966:66)
  16. ↑ Dutta, Dhruba Jyoti (2021). "Su-Ka-Pha The Founder Of Ahom Kingdom In Assam: A Historical Study" (PDF). International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts. 9 (8). e610. The date of birth of Sukapha and date of his adventure to Assam are also shrouded in mystery. It is mentioned in the Deodhai Assam Buranji that Sukapha was born in 1211 and invaded Assam in 1228. Haliram says that the date of birth of Sukapha was 1195 and he invaded Assam in 1246.
  17. ↑ Daniels, Christian (2012). "Script without Buddhism: Burmese Influence on the Tay (Shan) Script of Mäng2 Maaw2 as Seen in a Chinese Scroll Painting of 1407". International Journal of Asian Studies. 9 (2). 170. doi:10.1017/S1479591412000010. Though the Ahoms are reputed to have migrated to Assam during the thirteenth century we have no contemporary source that can elucidate their early history.
  18. ↑ Baruah, S. L. (1985). A Comprehensive History of Assam. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. p. 222. (Sukapha) ordered his chroniclers to keep record of all events. This was the glorious beginning of the history-writing in Assam—a precious contribution to Indian historiography.
  19. ↑ "Although tradition suggests that the Ahom brought their script with them when they crossed the Patkai Mountains into Assam in the 13th century from Mong Mao, located on the frontier of what is now Myanmar and China (Phukan 2006); it is unknown how old the script actually is. The oldest surviving Ahom text, the Snake Pillar inscription, only dates back to the time of King Siuw Hum Miung who reigned during 1497-1539 (Hosken and Morey 2012). However, the resemblance between the Ahom script and one of the extant Shan scripts known as lik hto ngouk, or “bean-sprout letters”, points to a common origin (Cushing 1888; Ferlus 1988; Diller 1992; Wichasin 1986). A recent paper by Daniels (2012) refers to a manuscript published in Yang, Bartholemew and Wang (2000). This has been identified as a Chinese manuscript dated 1407 that includes Tai language very similar in form and structure to the Tai Ahom script, suggesting that a script like Tai Ahom was in use in the Mong Mao kingdom by the end of the 14th century at the latest."(Gogoi, Morey & Pittayaporn 2020:17–18)
  20. ↑ "There is a general consensus that the proto-Shan script that developed into the modern Shan and Ahom scripts was adapted from the Burmese script sometime between the late 14th and the 16th century. Ferlus (1988) and Diller (1992) also argue that lack of orthographic contrasts between original voiced and voiceless consonants suggests that the adaptation took place later than the first half of the 13th century. In addition, Pain (2017) adds the use of digraph ui, to represent /ɯ/ in Shan and Ahom as further evidence for the Old Burmese origin. Furthermore, Daniel’s (2012) analysis of the 1407 manuscript discussed above postulates that the adaptation occurred in the 14th century. The shapes of 14 letters attested in the text as well as the use of diacritical -y-, -r-, and -w- points to an Old Burmese origin."(Gogoi, Morey & Pittayaporn 2020:17–18)
  21. ↑ Saikia 1997, pp. 179–180.
  22. ↑ Saikia 1997, p. 180.
  23. ↑ Goswami, Hemchandra, Purani Asam Buranji, pp. 3, 12.
  24. ↑ Bhuyan, Sukumar, Asam Buranji (SM), p. 7.
  25. ↑ Saikia 1997, pp. 180–181.
  26. 1 2 Saikia 1997, p. 181.
  27. ↑ Saikia 1997, pp. xii–xiii.
  28. ↑ Saikia 2004, p. 89.
  29. ↑ Saikia 2004, pp. 87–89.
  30. ↑ Hartmann, John F. (March 1997). "Phongsawadan Tai-Ahom: Ahom Buranji [Tai-Ahom Chronicles], 2 vols. Transcribed and translated by Renu Wichasin". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 28 (1): 227–229. doi:10.1017/S002246340001554X.
  31. ↑ Acharyya 1966, pp. 66–67.
  32. ↑ Kapoor, R. C. (2021). "Fixing the chronology in Tai-Ahom chronicles by using astronomical references". Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage. 24 (3): 665–687. doi:10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2021.03.07.
  33. ↑ Daniels, Christian (October 2023). "When did the Ahom Migrate to Assam?". Indian Journal of Tai Studies. XXIII. Institute of Tai Studies and Research.
  34. ↑ Morey, Stephen (2005). "Tonal Change in the Tai Languages of Northeast India". Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area. 28 (2): 139–202. doi:10.15144/LTBA-28.2.139. "the Kingdom of Mogaung, a Tai polity called Muang Kong ... in Aiton and known as Nora in Ahom sources."
  35. ↑ Phukan, J. N. (1991). "Relations of the Ahom Kings of Assam with Those of Mong Mao (in Yunnan, China) and of Mong Kwang (Mogaung in Myanmar)". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 52: 889. "Nora" country ... "may be identified with Mong Kwang".
  36. ↑ Goswami, Hemchandra, Purani Asam Buranji, p.25
  37. ↑ Barua, Gopal Chandra, ed. (1930). Ahom Buranji. Jorhat: Sibsagar District Buranji Committee. p. 38.
  38. ↑ Gogoi, Padmeswar (1956). "The Political Expansion of the Mao Shans" (PDF). Journal of the Siam Society. 44 (2): 133. Mong Wehsali Long (modern Assam) ... the ministers submitted without resistance and promised to make annual payment of twenty-five ponies; seven elephants.
  39. ↑ Gogoi, Padmeswar (1956). "The Political Expansion of the Mao Shans" (PDF). Journal of the Siam Society. 44 (2): 130. Sukapha ... later founded the Ahom kingdom in Saumarpith in Assam some five years after Sam-Long-Hpa's invasion of Assam.
  40. ↑ "Sukapha came not as a raiding conqueror but as the head of an agricultural folk in search of land. It appears he did not encroach upon the lands of the local peasants, rather he opened up new areas of settlement, procuring with shrewd diplomacy what he direly needed for the purpose—the service of the local inhabitants." (Baruah 1986:222)
  41. ↑ "For years, the community went on moving from place to place as a self-governed body of armed peasants in search of a suitable site. In course of their journey they left behind some small colonies at strategic places like Khamjang and Tipam. But after their temporary experimental stays at several sites, the main body finally settled by 1253 in the fertile Dikhou valley, now forming the Sibsagar district." (Guha 1983:12)
  42. ↑ "The Morans and the Barahis who dwelt in the region between Dikhau and the Dichang rivers were the first groups of tribal people whom Sukapha won over to his side by a policy of peace and conciliation. Those among them who challenged Sukapha were ruthlessly killed." (Baruah 1986:222)
  43. ↑ (Dutta 1985:25)
  44. ↑ "After two years' stay at Song-Tak Sukapha turned back and came to Simaluguri (Tun Nyeu). Here he learned through spies of heavy concentration of population on the Namdang (Nam Deng, 'red river') and considered it not worthwhile to make any attempt to reduce them to submission." (Phukan 1992:53)
  45. ↑ (Phukan 1992:52–53)
  46. ↑ (Phukan 1992:52)
  47. 1 2 (Phukan 1992:53)
  48. ↑ (Gogoi 2002, p. 27)
  49. ↑ (Gogoi 1968:264)
  50. ↑ (Guha 1983:12). "...the Ahoms assimilated some of the Nagas, Moran and Barahi neighbors and later also large sections of the Chutiya and the Kachari tribes. This Ahomisation process went on until the expanded Ahom society itself began to be Hinduised from the mid-16th century onwards." The Ahomization of neighbors, thus, began with Sukaphaa himself.
  51. ↑ "Gogoi inaugurates Sukapha Samanway Kshetra in Jorhat". Assam Tribune.
  52. ↑ "100-foot Chaolung Siu Ka Pha statue at Nazira » News Live TV » Assam". News Live TV. 25 February 2021. Retrieved 15 April 2021.
  1. ↑ An unpublished Assam Buranji records the birth of a boy at Nara Sengdam in Śaka 1260 (1338 CE), his accession in Saumar in Śaka 1284 (1362 CE), and his succession by his son in Śaka 1311 (1389 CE); two published works titled Assam Buranji likewise give Śaka 1284 (1362 CE) as the date of Sukaphaa's accession.[22][23][24] A source cited by Hemchandra Goswami gives Sukaphaa's birth as Śaka 1149 (1227 CE) and his departure from Nara with about 480 followers as Śaka 1169 (1247 CE); Haliram Barua's Ahom Buranji instead gives 1195 CE as his birth year and 1246 CE as the year of his invasion of Assam. The Deodhai Ahom Buranji places his birth in 1211 CE and his entry into Assam in 1228 CE, thirteen years after leaving Mungri-Mungaram, which would make him about four years old at his departure.[25]
  2. ↑ In his calculation from Susenpha's reign, Acharyya applied the average to the ten preceding rulers and allowed for an interregnum of about twelve years. He repeated the method from Suklenmung's coin of 1544, applying the same average to fourteen preceding rulers.[31]
  3. ↑ The Purani Asam Buranji records that the ruler of Nara (identified as Möng Kawng[34][35]), had conquered Assam and imposed tribute before Sukaphaa's arrival.[36]
  4. ↑ A related account in the Ahom Buranji edited by G. C. Barua associates Sukaphaa's westward movement with an attack from Möng Mao.[37]
  5. ↑ Padmeswar Gogoi, summarising the Hsen Wi Chronicle, records that Sam Long Hpa led an expedition to Möng Wehsali Long, identified as Assam, where the local ministers submitted without resistance and promised regular tribute. He places the establishment of Sukaphaa's kingdom in Assam about five years after the invasion of Assam led by Sam Long Hpa of Mogaung.[38][39]
  6. ↑ Sukapha won over the Moran chief by diplomatic means. Those sections of the Moran, who refused to surrender, were compelled to do so by force. According to Purani Assam Buranji, the headmen of these families were invited to participate in a feast, they were then made intoxicated and killed by Sukapha's men.[43]
  7. ↑ The former course is based on the palaeochannel map published in J. N. Sarma, “A Study on Palaeochannels from Satellite Imagery in a Part of Upper Assam”, in Proceedings of the National Symposium on Remote Sensing Applications for Resource Management with Special Emphasis on the North-Eastern Region, Guwahati, 1993, fig. 1, p. 76.

References

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