Black vinegar
Black vinegar is dark-colored vinegar traditionally used in Chinese and other East Asian cuisine.
Types
[edit]China
[edit]One of the most important types of Chinese "black vinegar" is the Shanxi mature vinegar (simplified Chinese: 山西老陈醋; traditional Chinese: 山西老陳醋; pinyin: lǎo chéncù) from the central plains of Northern China, particularly in the Shanxi province (Shanxi mature vinegar).[1] It is made from sorghum, peas, barley, bran and chaff and has a much stronger smoky flavor than rice-based black vinegar. It is popular in the north of China as a dipping sauce, particularly for dumplings.[citation needed]
Another type of Chinese "black vinegar" is Zhenjiang vinegar (simplified Chinese: 镇江香醋; traditional Chinese: 鎭江香醋; pinyin: zhènjiāng xiāngcù) and similar condiments from southern China.[2] The condiment is an inky-black rice vinegar aged for a malty, woody, and smoky flavor.[3][4] It is made from rice (usually glutinous),[5] or sorghum, or in some combination of those, sometimes including wheat and millet.[6] Black vinegar was traditionally aged in clay pots.[7]
In Sichuan, black vinegar is made from wheat bran and flavored with traditional medicinal spices. Sichuan's Baoning vinegar (保寧醋 or 保宁醋) is a famous example.
Black vinegar from Fujian is made using glutinous rice and colored red by the infusion of a special fungus.[7]
A number of historic vinegars were considered to be among China's first list of intangible cultural heritage, with more added since.[8]
Japan
[edit]The Japanese kurozu, a somewhat lighter form of black vinegar, is made only from brown rice.
According to some reports, Japan's annual per capita consumption of vinegar is 3.5 times that of China's.[9]
Japanese Kurozu Black Vinegar
Kurozu is a traditional Japanese black vinegar produced in Fukuyama, a former town in present-day Kirishima City, Kagoshima Prefecture, Japan. It is made primarily from brown rice, koji, and water, and is fermented and aged in outdoor earthenware jars known as aman tsubo. The vinegar is known for its long history, unique fermentation environment, and extended aging process.
History
The history of vinegar in Japan is said to date back to around the 4th century, when rice vinegar production techniques were introduced from China along with sake-brewing methods. This early vinegar, however, was general rice vinegar and differed from the black vinegar later developed in Fukuyama.
The origin of vinegar-making in Fukuyama is said to date back approximately 200 years. According to local tradition, a Fukuyama merchant named Matsubei Takenoshita learned about vinegar production from a Chinese merchant and brought the knowledge back to the region.
Over time, this vinegar came to be known as Fukuyama vinegar. During the Edo period, the Satsuma Domain maintained strict policies that restricted the movement of certain crops, techniques, and local specialties outside the domain. As a result, Fukuyama vinegar did not become widely known throughout Japan for many years.
Despite this, vinegar production continued to develop in Fukuyama. Over nearly two centuries, the town’s long-standing brewing culture helped create an environment rich in natural yeasts and acetic acid bacteria, which are essential for vinegar fermentation. In 1975, with the development of the current aging method using aman tsubo jars, Fukuyama vinegar came to be known as kurozu, or black vinegar.
Production
Kurozu is produced using a traditional method based on natural fermentation and long-term aging. The process relies on simple ingredients, local environmental conditions, and the use of earthenware jars.
Ingredients
Brown rice
Kurozu is made with high-quality Japanese brown rice. Brown rice contains amino acids, minerals, and other nutrients, giving black vinegar a richer profile than ordinary rice vinegar made from polished white rice.
Water
The water used in production comes from the Fukuyama area. The region’s volcanic soil and natural springs are said to contribute to the mild and smooth character of the vinegar.
Handmade koji is used to support the fermentation process. Koji plays a central role in converting the nutrients in rice into the components necessary for vinegar production.
Earthenware jar fermentation
One of the defining features of Fukuyama Kurozu is its fermentation in outdoor earthenware jars known as aman tsubo. After the ingredients are placed into the jars, much of the fermentation and aging takes place naturally inside them.
The jars absorb sunlight and help regulate temperature through natural convection. Over years of use, the jars also develop their own microbial environment, including natural yeasts and acetic acid bacteria. This contributes to the distinctive character of Fukuyama Kurozu.
Aging
Kurozu is typically aged for at least two years. Longer aging is associated with a deeper flavor, greater complexity, and higher levels of amino acids. Because of this extended aging process, production requires significant time, care, and craftsmanship.
Regional environment
The quality and character of Fukuyama Kurozu are closely connected to the natural environment of the Fukuyama area. Important factors include:
A fermentation culture developed over approximately 200 years A mild climate with relatively cool summers and warm winters High-quality spring water from volcanic soil The geothermal influence of the Kirishima volcanic region Long-term aging in outdoor earthenware jars
Together, these conditions have helped establish Fukuyama as one of Japan’s most recognized regions for traditional black vinegar production.
Nutritional profile
Because Fukuyama Kurozu is made from brown rice, it contains a variety of naturally occurring components, including:
Amino acids Branched-chain amino acids, also known as BCAAs Organic acids such as acetic acid and citric acid Minerals Polyphenols Other fermentation-derived nutrients
Compared with ordinary rice vinegar made from polished rice, black vinegar made from brown rice is often valued for its richer nutritional composition and deeper flavor.
Health and traditional use
Kurozu has long been consumed in Japan as part of a traditional wellness routine. It is often used as a daily food ingredient or diluted as a drink.
Due to its naturally occurring amino acids, organic acids, minerals, and fermentation-derived nutrients, black vinegar is commonly associated with:
Daily wellness support Nutritional support Healthy metabolism support Beauty and skin-care routines Exercise and active lifestyle support Healthy aging habits
These uses are based on the nutritional characteristics of black vinegar and its role in traditional Japanese food culture. They should not be understood as claims that black vinegar treats, cures, or prevents disease.
Characteristics
Kurozu is distinguished by the following features:
Approximately 200 years of local tradition Natural fermentation in outdoor earthenware jars Long-term aging of at least two years Use of Japanese brown rice, koji, and local water A rich amino acid profile A fermentation environment unique to Fukuyama, Kagoshima
Summary
Kurozu is a traditional Japanese black vinegar from Kagoshima Prefecture, produced through natural fermentation and long-term aging in earthenware jars. Made from brown rice, koji, and water, it represents one of Japan’s distinctive fermented food traditions and is valued for its deep flavor, craftsmanship, and naturally occurring fermentation-derived nutrients.
Today, kurozu is also widely consumed as a dietary supplement and health drink, and has become part of Japan’s traditional wellness culture.
Korea
[edit]In Korea black vinegar is also made with brown rice.[7]
Taiwan
[edit]Taiwanese black vinegar is the most different, with more in common with worcestershire sauce than other black vinegars. Its base is sticky rice which is then aged with other ingredients.[7] Other ingredients can include fruit, vegetables, spices, and sugar. Taiwanese black vinegar is known as wūcù and lends its name to dishes like wūcù miàn (black vinegar noodles). Taiwanese black vinegar is very high in sodium.[10]
History
[edit]Ancient Chinese laborers used wine as a leavening agent to ferment and brew vinegar. East Asian vinegar originated in China, and there are at least three thousand years of documented history of making vinegar. In ancient China, "vinegar" was called "bitter wine," which also indicates that "vinegar" originated from "wine".[11]
The first written mention of vinegar dates back to BC 1058, during the Zhou dynasty. [12]
Initially extremely costly and used only by the elite, vinegar eventually spread into popular usage by the Han dynasty.
Between 369–404 AD, Chinese techniques for making rice vinegar were imported into Japan.[9]
By 500 AD in the Northern and Southern dynasty era, one book featured 23 different methods for vinegar-making.[12]
During the Ming and Qing dynasties, the process for creating "smoked vinegar" was developed.[9]
Though the scale of the vinegar industry in China has greatly expanded since the country's industrialisation, production methods remain largely traditional due to a difficulty in regulating and controlling heat-sensitive microbial growths needed for the vinegar-making process.[9]
Some manufacturers have replaced the pottery vats and concrete pools with stainless steel tanks, as well as diversified their vinegar offerings to include different raw materials, including jujube, cherry, aloe, buckwheat, sea buckthorn fruit, fig, onion, and bamboo.[9]
In Chinese medicine, vinegar is considered as a curative effect for acute and chronic hepatitis.[12]
Uses
[edit]Black vinegar has been used as a full-flavored but less expensive alternative to traditional balsamic vinegar.[4][5]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ↑ "Sour Story - Shanxi Mature Vinegar". CRIENGLISH.com. 2009-03-05. Retrieved 2015-07-17.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (link) - ↑ DK Publishing (2010). "Oils, Vinegars, and Flavorings: Vinegars". The Illustrated Cook's Book of Ingredients. New York: DK Publishing. p. 516. ISBN 9780756667306. Retrieved March 21, 2012.
- ↑ Helm, Janet (March 29, 2012). "Is Black the New Black in Foods?". WebMD. Archived from the original on August 27, 2012. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
- 1 2 Kapadia, Jess (August 17, 2012). "Could Black Vinegar Be The New Balsamic?". FoodRepublic.com. Archived from the original on August 21, 2012. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
- 1 2 Passmore, Jacki (1991). "Black Vinegar". The Encyclopedia of Asian Food and Cooking. Hearst Books via Oregon State University. Archived from the original on 2014-07-14. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
- ↑ Switzer, Christine (October 9, 2010). "Health Benefits of Black Vinegar". LiveStrong. Retrieved 2012-08-26.
- 1 2 3 4 Wei, Clarissa (29 May 2021). "Black Vinegar Doesn't Just Season a Dish–It Transforms It". www.bonappetit.com. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
- ↑ "国务院关于公布第一批国家级非物质文化遗产名录的通知 第一批国家级非物质文化遗产名录（共计518项）__2006年第20号国务院公报_中国政府网". www.gov.cn. 中華人民共和國中央政府. Retrieved 3 February 2024.
- 1 2 3 4 5 Tang, Hanlan; Song, Jiankun; Luo, Lixin (2019). Vinegar Production in China (1 ed.). CRC Press. doi:10.1201/9781351208475-10. ISBN 9781351208475. Retrieved 3 February 2024.
- ↑ Crook, Steven; Hung, Katy Hui-wen (8 October 2018). A Culinary History of Taipei: Beyond Pork and Ponlai. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-5381-0138-4. Retrieved 15 July 2025.
- ↑ "Throughout history, vinegar is more than tasty". archive.shine.cn. 2016-03-23. Retrieved 2020-06-10.
- 1 2 3 Chen, Fusheng; Li, Li; Qu, Jiong; Chen, Chunxu (2009). "Cereal Vinegars Made by Solid-State Fermentation in China". Vinegars of the World. Springer Milan. pp. 243–259. doi:10.1007/978-88-470-0866-3_15. ISBN 978-88-470-0865-6.
