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Yi Un

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Yi Un
Crown Prince of Korea
Yi Un before 1928
Head of the former Korean imperial house
Period24 April 1926 – 1 May 1970
PredecessorSunjong
SuccessorYi Ku
Born(1897-10-20)20 October 1897
Deoksugung, Seoul, Korean Empire
Died1 May 1970(1970-05-01) (aged 72)
Nakseon Hall, Changdeokgung, Seoul, South Korea
Burial
Yeongwon, Hongneung and Yureung, Namyangju, South Korea
Spouse
​
​
(m. 1920)​
IssueYi Jin
Yi Ku
Names
Yi Un (이은; 李垠)
Posthumous name
Crown Prince Uimin (의민황태자; 懿愍皇太子)
HouseYi
FatherGojong of Korea
MotherImperial Noble Consort Sunheon
Military career
Allegiance Empire of Japan
Branch
 Imperial Japanese Army
Service years
1917–1945
Rank
Lieutenant general
CommandsFirst Air Army

Yi Un[a] (이은; 李垠; 20 October 1897 – 1 May 1970) was the last crown prince of the Korean Empire, the head of the former Korean imperial house after 1926, and a lieutenant general in the Imperial Japanese Army.[1][2] He was the seventh son of Gojong of Korea and the son of Imperial Noble Consort Sunheon.[1][3]

Yi Un was designated crown prince in 1907 and was taken to Japan later that year for education under Japanese supervision.[4][5] After the annexation of Korea by Japan in 1910, the former Korean imperial house was incorporated into the Japanese-created ōkōzoku system.[6] He married Princess Masako of Nashimoto in 1920 and succeeded Sunjong of Korea in 1926 as Yi Wang (李王), the Japanese-recognized head of the former Korean royal house.[7][1]

Yi Un served in the Japanese army, reached the rank of lieutenant general, served on the North China front, commanded the First Air Army, and was appointed a military councillor near the end of the Pacific War.[2][8] After Japan's defeat in 1945, he lost his royal status in Japan and remained there until South Korea permitted his return in 1963.[9][10] He returned while seriously ill and died at Changdeokgung in 1970.[11][1]

Name, title and terminology

[edit]

Yi Un's personal name was 李垠. In Japanese, the same characters were read as Ri Gin (りぎん).[12][13] His title before 1926 was commonly rendered in Korean colonial sources as Wangseja Jeonha (왕세자, 전하, 王世子殿下), meaning "His Highness the Crown Prince".[14][15] The Korean honorific jeonha (전하, 殿下) corresponds to Japanese denka (殿下), conventionally translated as "His Highness".[16][17]

The title Yeongchinwang, (영친왕, 英親王, "Prince Imperial Yeong") combined the title-name Yeong (英) with chinwang (친왕, 親王), an imperial-prince rank used in the Korean Empire for Gojong's sons and elder brother.[18][1]

After Sunjong's death in 1926, Yi Un's official colonial style was Changdeokgung Yi Wang Un Jeonha (昌德宮 李王垠 殿下; Japanese: 昌徳宮李王垠殿下).[16][17] The title used Changdeokgung as a palace-name prefix and Yi Wang (李王]], "Yi king") as the Japanese-recognized title for the head of the former Korean royal house.[19][16] It did not denote Korean sovereign authority.[6]

The palace-name prefix had older East Asian analogues in court language. In Korea and China, Donggung (동궁]], 東宮, "Eastern Palace") referred to the crown prince's residence and, by extension, to the crown prince.[20][21] The specific formulas Changdeokgung Yi Wang and Deoksugung Yi Taewang were introduced in the 1910 annexation order for the former Korean monarchs.[19]

Early life and education

[edit]
Yi Un with Itō Hirobumi

Yi Un was born at Deoksugung, then Gyeongungung, in Seoul on 20 October 1897.[1] His mother, Eom Seon-yeong, had entered the palace as a court lady and later became one of Gojong's consorts.[3] She was posthumously known as Imperial Noble Consort Sunheon.[3] Yi Un was a younger half-brother of Sunjong of Korea and Yi Kang.[1]

In 1900 he received the title Prince Imperial Yeong.[1] In 1907, after Gojong's abdication and Sunjong's accession, Yi Un was designated crown prince.[4] The proclamation linked the appointment to the continuation of the royal line and the duty to maintain sacrifices at Jongmyo.[4]

In December 1907, on the initiative of Itō Hirobumi, Yi Un was taken to Japan for education.[5][2] The move was meant to ensure that the Korean royal family would not take any further anti-Japanese actions following The Hague Secret Emissary Affair,[5] and amounted to detention as a hostage in practice.[1]. Japanese Emperor Meiji, who largely ignored his own grandchildren, devoted a lot of attention to Yi Un, acting as his guardian.[5] Itō would bring Yi Un whenever he was visiting the princes Hirohito, Chichibu and Takamatsu.[5] Meiji apparently stopped seeing Yi Un so frequently after Ito's assassination.[22] Yi Un attended Gakushūin and later followed a Japanese military education.[2]

Status under Japanese rule

[edit]

The annexation of Korea in 1910 ended the Korean Empire and changed the legal position of the former imperial family. Japanese authorities created the ōkōzoku (王公族]], Korean 왕공족, "royal and princely families") status for Gojong, Sunjong, Yi Un and other members of the former ruling house.[6] The status placed the Korean royal and princely families above the Japanese peerage and below the Japanese imperial family.[6]

The Japanese court issued regulations for the Korean royal and princely families.[23][24][25]. The Yi Royal Household Office, instituted in 1910, administered household personnel, property, accounts, palace buildings, gardens, documents, books and genealogical records.[26][27] It also organized receptions, gifts, banquets, court music, ancestral rites, and inspections of royal shrines, tombs and graves.[26][28] The office operated within an administrative structure linked to the Japanese Imperial Household Ministry and the Governor-General of Chōsen.[26][27]. It also became a site of factional competition among Korean nobles.[29]

In January 1927, the Japanese court issued the Ordinance concerning the dress of the royal and princely families (王公族ノ服装ニ関スル件).[30] The ordinance applied the Japanese Imperial Family Dress Regulations to the Korean royal and princely families and replaced cherry-blossom devices with the Yi-flower emblem on the coat, cap, sword and buttons.[31] The Yi flower, or ihwa (이화, 李花), had been used as an emblem of the Korean imperial house on decorations, stamps, court dress and military uniforms.[32]

Court supervision and household management

[edit]

After his 1920 marriage, Kuratomi Yūzaburō was appointed adviser to Yi Un. His task was to guide Yi Un so that he acquired the virtues of a Korean royal under Japanese rule; although he was not formally assigned to household affairs, his diary also recorded household administration.[33] Ko Huigyeong, an official attached to Yi Un, was Kuratomi's main Korean counterpart in the household.[34]

Kuratomi and Ko discussed how to handle Koreans seeking audiences or access to the household, including Korean nobles, Government-General officials and poor students.[35] They also discussed mourning practice after Gojong's death because Korean opinion might interpret Japanese-style one-year mourning by Yi Un, contrasted with Sunjong's three-year mourning in Seoul, as insufficient filial piety and excessive Japanization.[34]

Household income and property

[edit]

Before 1945, Yi Un's household income came through the finances of the former Korean royal house. The Government-General of Chōsen paid the Yi royal house an annual allowance, or sebi (세비, Japanese 歳費), from its special account.[36] The allowance was 750,000 won in 1910, 1,500,000 won from 1911 to 1920, and 1,800,000 won from 1921 onward.[36]

The household also received income from former crown properties in Korea administered by the Yi Royal Household Office. These properties were divided into basic property, such as securities, loans and cash, and general property, such as fields, paddies and forests.[37] Forest land was the largest part of the general property, and timber or forestry income entered the household accounts.[37] In the 1932 budget, the 1,800,000-won allowance was supplemented by forest income, bond interest, stock dividends, deposit interest, admission fees from Changgyeongwon, and real-estate rents.[38]

After the 1926 regulations on royal and princely households, much of the property was designated hereditary property.[39] By 1930, about 86 percent of Yi royal-household land had been placed in that category.[39] The 1926 hereditary-property rules and a 1927 amendment to the Real Estate Registration Act regulated the registration of these properties.[40][41]

Marriage and family

[edit]
Yi Un and Yi Bangja, 1923

Yi Un married Princess Masako of Nashimoto, the eldest daughter of Prince Nashimoto Morimasa, in Tokyo in April 1920.[1] The marriage was arranged in the context of Japanese colonial policy and was publicly presented as a sign of Japan–Korea harmony.[42] The 1918 supplement to the Japanese Imperial Household Law, which allowed Japanese imperial women to marry into Korean royal and princely houses, had been enacted with such marriages in mind. [43]

The couple had two sons. Their elder son, Yi Jin, was born in 1921 and died in infancy during a visit to Korea in 1922.[1][44] Their second son, Yi Ku, was born in 1931 and later succeeded his father as head of the former imperial household.[1]

The marriage was part of a wider pattern in which members of the former Korean royal house were placed within Japanese imperial and aristocratic society.[45] Yi Un's half-sister Princess Deokhye was sent to Japan for education and in 1931 married Sō Takeyuki, a Japanese aristocrat from the former ruling family of Tsushima Island.[46] Yi Un's nephew Yi Wu was educated in Japan and served as an officer in the Imperial Japanese Army, although he married a Korean woman, Park Chan-ju.[47]

In his diary, Kuratomi Yūzaburō recorded his worries that Yi Un's newly married domestic life might distract him from military duty.[35][1]

Ceremonial life and public representation

[edit]

Yi Un's ceremonial role centred on the ancestral rites of the former Korean royal house. His designation as crown prince in 1907 was justified in part by the need for an heir to assume responsibility for the sacrifices at Jongmyo.[4] Under Japanese rule, the Yi Royal Household Office continued to administer rites and inspections at royal shrines, tombs and graves.[26][28]

In Japanese and colonial visual culture, the former royal house was presented as a dynasty incorporated into the Japanese empire.[48] Public appearances by Gojong and Sunjong were largely confined to dynastic ritual or choreographed visits to exhibitions and other venues associated with colonial modernity.[49] Visual representation of Yi Un focused on his education, military training, travels and his marriage, all within Japanese imperial institutions.[50]

Colonial Korean press coverage of Yi Un's marriage, especially in Maeil Sinbo, framed the marriage as a union between an accomplished Japanese princess and the Korean crown prince.[51] The wedding circulated visually through photographs and official postcard sets.[52] Nationalist and independence publications described the marriage as forced and as part of Japanese assimilation policy.[53][54]

Visits to Korea and abroad

[edit]
Yi Un visiting the 1st Horse Artillery Squadron in Warsaw, Poland in 1927

After being taken to Japan, Yi Un made occasional visits to Korea, including in 1911 after the death of his mother, in 1918 after his graduation from the Japanese Army Academy, in 1919 for Gojong's funeral, in 1922 with Yi Bangja and their son Yi Jin, and in 1926 around Sunjong's final illness and death.[5][1][55][8]

During early return visits to Korea, Yi Un used Seokjojeon at Deoksugung as a temporary residence.[56][57] In 1922, Yi Un and Yi Bangja stayed there with Yi Jin; the child died suddenly at Deoksugung Seokjojeon the day before the family was to return to Japan.[44]

In May 1927, Yi Un and Yi Bangja left Yokohama for an extended tour of Europe. They travelled with a seven-person entourage that included officials of the Yi Royal Household Office, departing aboard the Japanese liner Hakone Maru and returning to Japan in April 1928.[58] The outward route passed through Shanghai, Singapore, Penang, Colombo, the Suez Canal, Cairo and Naples before the party landed at Marseille on 4 July 1927. The European itinerary included France, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Poland, Austria, Czechoslovakia and Italy.[59] Although the journey was not a formal state visit, Japanese diplomatic personnel assisted the party, and Yi Un was received by several European rulers and heads of state.[59] During the tour he also visited cultural institutions, historical sites, universities and hospitals, and took part in golf-related activities in several countries.[60]

In January–February 1935, Yi Un made an inspection tour of Taiwan.[61] The visit lasted from 17 January to 1 February and followed a route similar to those arranged for members of the Japanese imperial family.[61] After landing at Keelung, he visited fortress and artillery sites and a memorial associated with Prince Kitashirakawa Yoshihisa.[62] In Taipei, he visited Taiwan Shrine, the Governor-General's Office, Taiwan Army offices, the First Infantry Regiment, the Taiwan Mountain Artillery unit, Kenkō Shrine, the botanical garden, the Central Research Institute, the Monopoly Bureau and Taihoku Imperial University.[62] The tour continued through central and southern Taiwan, including Taichung, facilities near Chiayi, Alishan, Tainan Shrine, Tainan Confucian Temple, Fort Zeelandia, the Sugar Research Institute, Kaohsiung Harbor, Pingtung airfield, Penghu, and the hydroelectric works at Sun Moon Lake.[63]

Tokyo residence

[edit]
The former Yi royal family residence in Kioichō, Tokyo, later the Akasaka Prince Hotel, photographed in 2010

Yi Un and Yi Bangja's principal Tokyo residence was the former Yi royal family residence in Kioichō, Chiyoda, Tokyo.[64][65] The site had earlier formed part of the estates of the Kishū Tokugawa family and then the Kitashirakawa-no-miya branch of the Japanese imperial family.[64] The Western-style residence was built in 1930 as the Tokyo residence of the Yi royal family, with designs by the former Imperial Household Ministry's construction bureau, including Kitamura Kōzō and Gondō Yōkichi.[66][65]. The exterior was inspired by English Tudor. The interior mixes several idioms rather than following a single style and includes classical columns, Jacobean-style twisted columns, and Japanese ajirō-style wickerwork ceilings. One distinctive decorative work is a marble relief by Takeishi Kōzaburō in the entrance hall, depicting nine putti or amorini playing with garlands, that might incorporate the likenesses of Yi Un, Yi Bangya and their sons.CITEREFKo2012

The building was later used as an official residence for the president of the House of Councillors, and in 1955 it opened as the Akasaka Prince Hotel.[66] It was designated a Tokyo Metropolitan Tangible Cultural Property in 2011 and was restored as part of the Tokyo Garden Terrace Kioicho redevelopment.[67][65] It reopened in 2016 as the Akasaka Prince Classic House.[65]

Military career

[edit]
From right to left: Yi Un's nephews Yi Wu and Yi Geon, and Yi Un, with members of the Japanese imperial family at Yasukuni Shrine, 1938

Yi Un entered the Japanese Army Central Youth School in 1911, graduated from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy in 1917, and graduated from the Army War College in 1923.[2] He served as an officer in the Imperial Japanese Army.[1][2]

He was promoted to lieutenant general in 1940.[2] In 1941 he was sent to the North China front.[2][8] On 20 July 1943 he was appointed commander of the First Air Army.[68] In September 1944 he inspected Yōkaichi Airfield.[69] On 1 April 1945 he was transferred from First Air Army commander to military councillor.[70] Japanese anti-guerrilla operations in North China involved severe violence against civilians, including the use of chemical weapons and forced-labour mobilization. As part of the so-called "Three Alls" policy ("kill all, burn all, loot all"), Japanese military commanders issued orders to kill suspected male enemies and burn "enemy villages".[71]

In a 1945 Cabinet Secretariat file preserving a first survey of war-crimes names, Yi Wang Un was listed under “emperor, royal and princely family” (天皇、王皇族); the list was not an indictment, and Yi Un was not tried before the International Military Tribunal for the Far East.[72][73] His father-in-law, Prince Nashimoto Morimasa, was arrested after the war as a suspected war criminal, but later released. [74]

Private pursuits

[edit]

Yi Un learnt golf in 1924, and in 1925 he participated in a golf competition hosted by the Japanese crown prince.[60] During his 1927–1928 European tour, he played golf, visited golf courses, received golf lessons and visited golf-ball manufacturing facilities.[60] After returning from Europe, he supported the site, construction costs and operating expenses of the Gunjari Golf Course in Keijō, present-day Seoul.[60]

He was also the first Korean to succeed in orchid breeding and credits him with developing the varieties Changyeong (창경; 昌慶) and Changbang (창방; 昌房).[75] Yi Un admired large colour plant charts by Yamada Toshio at the Tokyo Science Museum and invited Yamada to draw orchids when those cultivated in the Yi royal family's Tokyo greenhouse were in bloom.[76]

Postwar life in Japan

[edit]

Wartime Allied planning did not produce a plan for restoration of the Yi dynasty. During British-American working-level discussions in preparation for the Cairo Conference, British officials briefly floated the possibility of installing a member of a branch of the former Korean royal family as a figurehead for a future Korean government; the idea was dismissed by American diplomat Stanley Hornbeck.[77]

After Japan's defeat in 1945, Yi Un and Yi Bangja remained in Japan. In September 1946, Yi Un publicly denied Japanese newspaper reports that he intended to live permanently away from Korea and stated that his hope was for the creation of a stable Korean administration.[78] In the statement, he described his duty as that of a citizen of a new Korea.[78]

In November 1945 the United States military government in Korea abolished the Yi Royal Household Office and transferred its functions to an Old Royal Palace Affairs Office.[79] After the establishment of the First Republic of Korea, former imperial property was managed through state bodies.[79] The 1954 Former Imperial Property Act classified former imperial property into permanent-preservation property and other property, placed the property under state management, and created a special account whose expenditures included management costs and subsistence expenses for former royal-family members.[80] Subsequent reforms abolished the special former-imperial-property organs, and permanent-preservation properties were incorporated into South Korea's state cultural-property system.[81]

The abolition of the Japanese-recognized Ōkōzoku status in 1947 ended Yi Un's legal position as Yi Wang.[9][82] The government of Syngman Rhee refused the couple permission to settle in Korea.[9] Their finances deteriorated, and they supported themselves by selling assets.[83] In 1954 the former Yi royal residence in Tokyo was sold, and the couple moved to the smaller Mikaryō residence in Denenchōfu.[83] The former Kioichō residence was later acquired by Seibu Railway and opened in 1955 as the Akasaka Prince Hotel.[84]

Persons on Korean family registers in Japan lost Japanese nationality when the San Francisco Peace Treaty took effect in 1952. When Yi Un wanted to travel to the United States to attend Yi Ku's graduation from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the South Korean government refused to issue him a passport. He subsequently naturalized in Japan in 1957 in order to be able to travel to Yi Ku's graduation.CITEREFKBS_World2010

Religion

[edit]

Yi Un became a Roman Catholic late in life. He was baptized in Tokyo in 1961 by the Franciscan priest Seok Jong-gwan and received the baptismal name Joseph.[85][86]. Yi Bangja was baptized in 1983 and received the baptismal name Maria.[85]

Illness and return to Korea

[edit]

Yi Un's was first hospitalized for cerebral thrombosis at Sanno Hospital in Tokyo in August 1957, and by May 1963 he had suffered three attacks and had developed aphasia.[87][88]

South Korea restored Yi Un's Korean citizenship in December 1962; he and Yi Bangja subsequently returned to Korea on 22 November 1963.[10] He arrived in serious ill health and was taken by ambulance to St. Mary's Hospital in Myeongdong, Seoul.[10][8] His homecoming included a motorcade and crowds along the route from the airport to the hospital,[89] with students and citizens waving the Taegukgi and former palace women from Nakseonjae greeting him with deep bows.[8]

After his return, his formal residence was Nakseonjae at Changdeokgung.[90] In practice, he spent most of the period after his return under medical care.[11][88] He was treated in room 613 of St. Mary's Hospital for six years, five months and nine days.[11][88] After his return to Korea he could not speak, although press accounts described him as retaining some consciousness.[87][88] From the summer of 1966 he was unable to swallow water by mouth and was given liquid food through a nasal tube.[87]

Death and funeral

[edit]

Yi Un died at Nakseonjae on 1 May 1970.[11][1] Yi Un's funeral was held as a nine-day ceremony at Changdeokgung with honours accorded to a crown prince.[91] It combined a Catholic funeral Mass with Korean court-funeral elements.[92] It was organized by an ad hoc funeral committee, chaired by Lee Hyo-sang, then Speaker of the National Assembly of South Korea[93][94] and a Catholic layman.[95][96][94] On 9 May 1970, Yi Un's funeral Mass was held at Nakseonjae at 7 a.m., concelebrated by Cardinal Stephen Kim Sou-hwan, Archbishop Paul Roh Ki-nam and Bishop Daniel Tji Hak Soun.[92] An 80-member choir from the Catholic University theology faculty sang Requiem music and about 700 Catholic mourners attended.[92]

The procession included a bancha (반차, 班次, "processional order"), a large funeral bier, mourning banners, musicians, students and military-band personnel.[94][97] Some of Yi Un's relatives wore chamchoebok (참최복, 斬衰服), a mourning dress associated with royal mourning precedent.[98]

The funeral was attended by Prince Takamatsu Nobuhito and Princess Takamatsu Kikuko as representatives of the Japanese imperial family[97][99] and Prime Minister Chung Il-kwon, who offered incense.[97]

Yi Un was buried at Yeongwon in the Hongneung and Yureung royal tomb precinct in Namyangju.[1]

Archival footage

[edit]

Several pre-1945 moving-image records of Yi Un survive. A 1927 Reuters item held by the Korean Contemporary History Film Archive shows Yi Un and Yi Bangja during their visit to Brussels, where they are seen getting out of a car with attendants.[100] A 1929 Japanese silent film about the visit of the Graf Zeppelin to Japan includes footage of Yi Un viewing the airship in its hangar at Kasumigaura.[101] A seven-minute silent film made in 1932 records Yi Un's visit to the Bantsuma Kanto Studio at Yatsu Beach in Chiba Prefecture.[17]

Legacy

[edit]
Court uniform of Yi Un displayed at the National Palace Museum of Korea

Yi Un is posthumously known as Crown Prince Uimin.[1] His spirit tablet was placed in Jongmyo in 1973 with presidential approval.[102]

Yi Bangja remained in Korea after Yi Un's death and became associated with welfare work for disabled children and people with disabilities.[103] Institutions associated with the couple included Jahanghoe, founded in 1966, and Myeonghwiwon, founded in 1967 and named after Yi Un's pen name.[1]

In fiction

[edit]

In the 2006 Japanese television film Niji o Kakeru Ōhi, produced by Fuji Television, he was portrayed by Junichi Okada, opposite Miho Kanno as Yi Bangja.[104][105] The drama presented their marriage as a political union arranged under the slogan of Japan–Korea friendship and framed the couple's lives around colonial rule, bereavement and postwar loss of status.[104]

In the 2016 South Korean film The Last Princess, Yi Un was portrayed by Park Soo-young.[106] The film, centred on Princess Deokhye, depicts Yi Un as Deokhye's brother in Japan and makes him the object of a fictional plan to move members of the former royal family to the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in Shanghai.[107] Director Hur Jin-ho described the Shanghai exile operation involving Yi Un and other royal-family members as a fictionalized device.[108]

Children

[edit]
  • Yi Jin (이진; 李晋; I Jin; I Chin; 18 August 1921 – 11 May 1922), the elder son of Yi Un and Yi Bangja.[1]
  • Yi Ku (이구; 李玖; I Gu; I Ku; 29 December 1931 – 16 July 2005), the second son of Yi Un and Yi Bangja.[1]

Honours

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ↑ Also romanized as Yi Eun, Lee Eun, Un Yi and Ri Gin.

Citations

[edit]
  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Park 1995.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Shin 2016.
  3. 1 2 3 Han 2017.
  4. 1 2 3 4 National Institute of Korean History 1907.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Bix 2000, p. 35.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Shinjo 2006, pp. 314–316.
  7. ↑ Shinjo 2006, pp. 316–323.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 Hankook Ilbo 2021.
  9. 1 2 3 Uyama 2019.
  10. 1 2 3 National Archives of Korea 2012.
  11. 1 2 3 4 Maeil Business Newspaper 1970a.
  12. ↑ Shōwakan Digital Archive 2026.
  13. ↑ Asahi Shimbun 2022.
  14. ↑ National Institute of Korean History 1910b.
  15. ↑ Maeil Sinbo 1918.
  16. 1 2 3 National Institute of Korean History 1926.
  17. 1 2 3 National Film Archive of Japan 1932.
  18. ↑ Academy of Korean Studies 2026a.
  19. 1 2 National Institute of Korean History 1910.
  20. ↑ Academy of Korean Studies 1995.
  21. ↑ Academy of Korean Studies 1996.
  22. ↑ Bix 2000, p. 697, note 38..
  23. ↑ JAHIS 1926.
  24. 1 2 3 4 Lee 2021, pp. 153–186.
  25. 1 2 Shin 1998.
  26. 1 2 Lee 2017a.
  27. ↑ Lee Seung-yup 2012, pp. 176–177.
  28. ↑ JACAR 1927.
  29. ↑ Lee 2017b.
  30. ↑ Nagai 2012, pp. 82–83.
  31. 1 2 Nagai 2012, p. 83.
  32. 1 2 Nagai 2012, pp. 83–84.
  33. 1 2 National Archives of Korea 2006, p. 176.
  34. 1 2 Shin 2015, pp. 165–189.
  35. ↑ National Archives of Korea 2006, p. 180.
  36. 1 2 Shin 2017, pp. 627–650.
  37. ↑ JAHIS 1927.
  38. ↑ Shinjo 2006, pp. 316–319.
  39. ↑ Cabinet Secretariat 2021, pp. 3, 6.
  40. 1 2 Korea Heritage Service 2026.
  41. ↑ Shinjo 2006, pp. 338–339.
  42. ↑ Choi 1995.
  43. ↑ Museum Hanmi 2022, pp. 6–8.
  44. ↑ Kim 2013, pp. 96–105.
  45. ↑ Kim 2013, pp. 99–100.
  46. ↑ Kim 2013, pp. 100–104.
  47. ↑ Lee 2011, pp. 229–258.
  48. ↑ Pai 2015, p. 376.
  49. ↑ Lee 2011, pp. 234–235.
  50. ↑ Yonhap News Agency 2016.
  51. ↑ National Institute of Korean History 1926b.
  52. ↑ Korea Heritage Service 2014.
  53. ↑ Yonhap News Agency 2014.
  54. ↑ Lee 2010, p. 22.
  55. 1 2 Chosun Ilbo 2022.
  56. 1 2 3 4 Cho 2020, pp. 986–995.
  57. 1 2 Chen 2011, pp. 154–156.
  58. 1 2 Chen 2011, p. 155.
  59. ↑ Chen 2011, pp. 155–156.
  60. 1 2 Chiyoda City 2025. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFChiyoda_City2025 (help)
  61. 1 2 3 4 Tokyo Garden Terrace Kioicho 2026.
  62. 1 2 Chiyoda City 2023.
  63. ↑ BELCA 2020.
  64. ↑ Ritsumeikan Peace Museum 1943.
  65. ↑ Kawa 2013, pp. 78–79.
  66. ↑ JACAR 1945a.
  67. ↑ Hatano 2011, pp. 175–176.
  68. ↑ JACAR 1945b.
  69. ↑ National WWII Museum 2026.
  70. ↑ National Diet Library 2026.
  71. ↑ Academy of Korean Studies 2023a.
  72. ↑ Terada 2025, pp. 185–187.
  73. ↑ Ku 2021, p. 242.
  74. 1 2 Chosun Ilbo 1946.
  75. 1 2 Academy of Korean Studies 2023b.
  76. ↑ Academy of Korean Studies 2023c.
  77. ↑ Kim 2020, pp. 64–87.
  78. 1 2 Sumino 2022, p. 30.
  79. ↑ Suzuki 2019.
  80. 1 2 Catholic Times 1989.
  81. ↑ Catholic Times 1990.
  82. 1 2 3 Maeil Business Newspaper 1970b.
  83. 1 2 3 4 Catholic Times 1970a.
  84. ↑ Kim 2010.
  85. ↑ Daehan News 1963.
  86. ↑ National Palace Museum of Korea 2026.
  87. 1 2 3 Catholic Times 1970c.
  88. ↑ Maeil Business Newspaper 1970d.
  89. 1 2 3 Maeil Business Newspaper 1970c.
  90. ↑ Academy of Korean Studies 2023d.
  91. ↑ Catholic Encyclopedia of Korea 2026.
  92. 1 2 3 Daehan News 1970.
  93. ↑ Choi 2025.
  94. ↑ Imperial Household Agency 2026.
  95. ↑ Korean Contemporary History Film Archive 2024.
  96. ↑ National Film Archive of Japan 1929.
  97. ↑ Shinjo 2015, pp. 229–230.
  98. ↑ Sumino 2022, pp. 28–31.
  99. 1 2 Fuji Television 2026.
  100. ↑ Seoul Shinmun 2006.
  101. ↑ Rotten Tomatoes 2026.
  102. ↑ Yonhap News Agency 2016b.
  103. ↑ Cine21 2016.
  104. ↑ 刑部 2017, p. 155.
  105. ↑ [109]
  106. ↑ Bille-Hansen & Holck 1933, p. 21.
  107. ↑ [111]
  108. ↑ Sveriges statskalender 1931, p. 148.
  109. ↑ [113]
  110. ↑ Československý řád Bílého lva.
  111. ↑ [115]

Works cited

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